A class I overview of the prehistoric cultural resources, Little ...

BLM LIBRARY

88051321 AN OVERVIEW of

PREHISTORICCULTURAL RESOURCES

LITTLE SNAKE RESOURCE AREANorthwestern Colorado

BUREAU of

LAND MANAGEMENTCOLORADO

CULTURALRESOURCES

SERIES

Number 20

Halcyon La Point

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£*-** *&>

A CLASS I OVERVIEW OF THE PREHISTORIC CULTURAL RESOURCES

LITTLE SNAKE RESOURCE AREA, MOFFAT, ROUTT, AND RIO BLANCO COUNTIES

COLORADO

By Halcyon La Point

BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

DENVER, COLORADO

1987

>

COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION ARE AVAILABLE FROM:

LITTLE SNAKE RESOURCE AREABUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT1280 INDUSTRIAL AVENUECRAIG, COLORADO 81625

OR

CRAIG DISTRICT OFFICEBUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

455 EMERSONCRAIG, COLORADO 81641

OR

COLORADO STATE OFFICEBUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT

2850 YOUNGFIELD ST.

LAKEWOOD, COLORADO 81215

This document is printed in conjunction with the Little Snake Resource AreaResource Management Plan. It serves as support for the RMP, ~lus oil and gasleasing, lands actions, and other BLM activities. In addition, this work is

integral to the Craig District Cultural Resource Management Plan.

This report is also available from:

NTIS Computer ServiceU.S. Department of Commerce

National Technical Information ServiceSpringfield, VA 22161

The document is in the public domain and may be quoted. If direct quotationsare made, please credit either the author or the Bureau of Land Management.

DESIGNED BY: Leigh WellbornSERIES EDITOR: Frederic J. Athearn

FOREWORD

This publication represents the first portion of the Craig District's Class I

overview for archaeology. Over the last several years, Craig District,beginning with the Little Snake Resource Area, developed an overview systemthat contains an extensive computer database, a compilation of site data, anda narrative overview. This document is that narrative. In it,

Halcyon La Point explores the pre-history of the Little Snake area, while alsocompiling data that has heretofore, been largely scattered. The primarycontribution of this work is the consolidation of much data into a highlyreadable and coherent synthesis of the pre-history of northwestern Colorado.

Additionally, this volume represents the 20th publication in the CulturalResources Series. Over the last ten years, BLM has printed 20 works of

archaeology and history that have been very well-received by the public aswell as the professional community. Indeed, some have been award winning. Weare pleased to have been able to provide this valuable service and I amparticularly pleased to have reached the milestone of 20 editions.

I am proud to make this report available to the public and I know that its

contents will be useful for a long period to come. I trust that this workwill become a standard for the archaeology profession.

Neil F. MorckState DirectorBureau of Land ManagementColorado

PREFACE

The following document was developed by Ms. La Point in an eight week

period at the end of 1984. Prior to the actual writing of the Class I

narrative, extensive work was required to establish the correctness of the

site record files, contractor, BLM cultural resource report files and the

site/project information USGS quad maps files. Once this task was

completed, the development of the REX database formats was undertaken.

This then led to the encoding of approximately 1300 cultural resource

sites and associated project information. The data entry and correcting

the REX cultural resource database followed. This appears rather straight

forward and simple. It was not. A lot of new ground was broken with this

effort. This kind of project had not been done before as a total package

or by just one person. It is to Ms. LaPoint's credit and the then BLM

Resource Area Management that so much was accomplished in such a short

time frame.

It the interim, between the draft being written and October 1986, the

Class I narrative manuscript remained just that, a manuscript. The

computer database, however, underwent some fundamental changes. REX was

changed to ASPEN. Then a new database format, INFOCEN, was brought on

line by the BLM. It was decided that INFOCEN would better serve the LSRA

cultural needs. The change was made in 1985. The resulting problems of

the conversion to INFOCEN plus data storage conflicts have led to some

problems with the computer database. These problems are mechanical in

nature and are actively being addressed and corrected.

The Class I narrative was again addressed in late 1985. What follows,

represented here, is again another concentrated effort of another group of

individuals. With a document at the advanced stage of development, it is

the non-author portions of work that required considerable work. This

effort was provided by Beverly Kolkman, district editor, and Kathleen

Phillips, word processor operator. There also are a host of others that

helped with the inevitable odds and ends of such work. To all of you,

many thanks.

The LSRA Class I overview represents not only the work depicted here but

the LSRA computer database system as well. Further, the two other

Resource Areas in the Craig District, Kremmling and White River Resource

Areas, are developing compatible computer databases. These will provide

for a larger database with which to view northwestern Colorado

prehistory. When this is completed on a District wide basis, we will have

an unprecedented view of northwestern Colorado prehistoric archaeology.

In conjunction with the Craig District cultural database, an entirely

separate and different computer database is being developed. This is the

Geogrophical Information System (GIS). GIS allows for the analysis and

display of a large volume and variety of physically locatable data. This

data includes topographic features, soils, water, vegetation, wildlife and

of course, cultural. The physical view that can be provided by GIS will

allow for a unique data manipulation tool and a first for northwestern

Colorado cultural resource management efforts.

The manipulations of cultural data within the database itself, as well as

the ability to access the Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences

(SPSS) in INFOCEN and in conjunction with the GIS capabilities are going

to provide cultural resource management with the means to address the

resource questions in this document as well as similar questions in Grady

(1984). Moreover, these tools will be available to the Colorado State

Historic Preservation Officer's staff and the archaeological community for

developing the needed research designs and data collection strategies.

With continued efforts in the Craig District and support from the Colorado

State BLM office, this will all be 'on line' by the end of 1988 or early

in 1989. The end of the 1980's and the early 1990's are going to be

exciting times for archaeology and cultural resource management in

northwest Colorado.

Henry S. KeeslingArea ArchaeologistLittle Snake Resource Area

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I. Introduction 1

II

.

Environmental Background 3

III. Investigation and Research Background 65

IV. Synopsis 170

Bibliography 223

Appendix A 247

I.

INTRODUCTION

This background document, or class I overview, has been prepared

according to the guidelines established in the Bureau of Land Management

(BLM) cultural resources manual, section 8111. It describes the prehistoric

cultural resources of the Little Snake Resource Area (LSRA) in the Craig

District of the BLM.

The objectives of this project were to inventory and compile the

existing cultural resource information for the LSRA and to generate a

document that would summarize this information in a cultural, historical

context. The document will be used as a basic background guide for

contracting archaeologists or for cultural resource managers who may be in

the region for the first time.

Preparing this document required two principal tasks: writing of a

cultural resource overview and the compilation of site records.

The first task involved reviewing publications, cultural resource

management reports, and archives that relate to the prehistory of the LSRA.

The second task required the collection of site record information about

known prehistoric sites in the LSRA. This effort relied heavily on the

records maintained by the Colorado Preservation Office and those maintained

in various BLM offices.

At the onset, it seemed appropriate that record compilation (and

maintenance) of this scale might best be accomplished by developing a

computerized data base system. Such a system prototype was developed using

the REX data base management package, and the overview was written

primarily from data retrieved from that data base. As with many overviews,

the document becomes dated with every new archaeological find, but the data

base remains dynamic and flexible, able to produce updated Class I overviews

as research and development proceeds.

II.

ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND

One of the most important factors that influenced prehistoric peoples

was the environment and its effect on spatial and seasonal distribution of

biotic resources. Settlement distribution is commonly determined by the

location of specific resources and the correlation between habitats. These

resources provide important information for the understanding of prehistoric

subsistence and settlement systems.

Location of Study Area

Land administered by the Little Snake Resource Area of the Bureau of

Land Management falls within three counties, which make up the northwestern

corner of Colorado: Moffat, Rio Blanco, and Routt (Map 1). The study area

is bounded on the north by Sweetwater and Carbon counties, Wyoming; on the

east by Jackson and Grand counties, Colorado; on the west by Dagget County,

Utah; and to the south by Rio Blanco and Garfield counties, Colorado.

Physiography

The study area covers a region of considerable landform diversity (see

photos 1 through 5). It is included within three recognized physiographic

provinces of the western United States: the Wyoming Basin, the Middle Rocky

Mountains, and the Southern Rocky Mountains. It is roughly centered in the

Wyoming Basin, which is surrounded by the Southern and Middle Rocky Mountain

provinces

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Forests

The study area is bounded on the east by the Park Range; on the south by

the Axial Basin, Williams Forks, and Danforth Hills; on the west by the

Uintah Mountains; and on the north by the Washakie Basin.

Regionally, Northwestern Colorado and Southwestern Wyoming form a

topographic corridor connecting the Great Basin and the Great Plains (Mulloy

1954, J. Jennings 1957, and Aikens 1966). This natural corridor may contain

clues to the cultural subsystems influencing the spread of peoples and

cultural characteristics from core areas outward. Northwestern Colorado is

peripheral to, but contained within, the spheres of influence of three major

cultural areas: the Northwest Great Plains, the greater Southwest, and the

Great Basin. This region has been called the "Great Margin" (C. Jennings

1968), and distinct influences from each of these regions are reflected in

the diverse archaeological remains throughout this area.

The southern Rocky Mountain province divides northward into three

anticlinal uplifts at the Laramie, Medicine Bow, and Park ranges. There are

a series of craggy, strongly glaciated ridges, which include Mt. Zirkel

(12,000 ft), just south of the Wyoming border. Precambrian rocks form the

core of the Park Range, which in turn forms the eastern border of the study

area. Mesozoic and Paleozoic formations form hogbacks along the flanks and

dip under tertiary deposits that form a basin to the west of the study

area. North and south of this ridge the crests are accordant, and for the

most part the slopes are moderate.

The Continental Divide follows the crest of the Park Range. Headwaters

of the Yampa River, which flow north between the White River Plateau and the

Park Range and turn west at Steamboat Springs to become the primary drainage

for the LSRA, are located in that range. The Yampa River is fed by a number

of streams, including the Elkhead River and Trout, Fish, Watson, Oak, and

Soda creeks

.

The Wyoming Basin lies between the Middle and Southern Rocky Mountain

provinces and connects with, as well as resembles, the adjoining part of the

Colorado Plateau to the south. (For the purpose of discussion, the White

River arbitrarily marks the boundary between the two provinces.) The basin

also provides a corridor between the Great Plains and the Colorado Plateau.

The floor of this basin is a plateau with a maximum east/west dimension of

250 miles and a north/south dimension of approximately the same milage. The

altitude of the plateau surface, which is bordered by mountain slopes and

studded with isolated mountains, is generally between 6,500 to 7,500 feet.

That portion of the Wyoming Basin within Colorado is usually referred to

as the Sand Wash or Yampa Basin, which is a shallow structural basin

surrounded and confined by a number of minor uplifts. The basin trends

NW/SE and is bounded by the Park Range Uplift to the east, the Uintah

Mountains to the west, and the Williams Fork Mountains/Axial Basin Uplift to

the south. The northern extremity of the basin is broadly defined by the

Baggs Anticline. Drainage is generally westward to the Yampa River, which

is fed by Lay, Fortification, and Milk creeks, and the Williams Fork River.

The Yampa River is joined by the Little Snake River about 35 miles east of

the Utah line.

Sand Wash Basin contains volcanic areas at the west foot of the Park

Range, represented by the Elkhead Mountains. These are flat-topped remnants

of sedimentary rocks that are capped and protected by sheets of basalt.

They range from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, above the plains. Cedar Mountain,

northwest of Craig, is a volcanic remnant formed by a surface accumulation

of extruded lavas. Subsurface fissures filled with volcanic material are

often exposed during degradation (erosional) cycles. These erosional

remnants are locally preserved as dikes; one, Fortification Dike, is located

20 miles north of Craig.

The Sand Wash Basin, which was formed on Cretaceous and Tertiary

sedimentary rocks, displays a rough, deeply dissected surface. Alkali flats

are common in the basin, and eolian deposits or sand dunes of Holocene age

are located throughout the basin. Broad areas of small relief are

interrupted or separated by scarps and dissected cuestas. One such cuesta,

the Williams Fork Mountains, overlooks the anticlinal valley of the Williams

Fork River, which flows northwest from the White River Plateau into the

Yampa River.

9

The Axial Basin Uplift is a physiographic structure connecting the

Uintah Mountains of the Middle Rocky Mountain province with the White River

Plateau of the Southern Rocky Mountain province. It is an anticline with a

deeply eroded axis that forms a continuous and sharply outlined trough. The

Yampa River flows through the western half of the trough, and the eastern

half is crossed by several streams.

Two isolated mountains, Juniper Mountain (Yampa Peak) and Cross

(Junction) Mountain, are located along the floor of the trough. Both are

structurally similar to the Uintah Mountains and the White River Plateau.

The Yampa River cuts canyons through both of these uplifts.

The Danforth Hills, the southern boundary of the LSRA, are located

between the Axial Basin and the White River. These hills are a series of

folds that have been reduced to lowlands through erosion. This district,

which is intermediate in character between the mountain and plateau

provinces, structurally links the Southern Rocky Mountain province and the

Uintah Range (of the Middle Rocky Mountain province).

The Middle Rocky Mountain province, which borders the western portion of

the study area, is represented by the Uintah Range, the largest east-west

range in the United States and perhaps the Western Hemisphere. These

mountains are essentially a flat-topped anticlinal uplift of Precambrian

rocks that separates the Wyoming Basin from the Uintah Basin. The Green

River flows south across the Wyoming Basin to the Uintahs, then turns east

along Brown's Park, a structural valley containing Miocene-Pliocene

sediments. South flowing Vermillion Creek meets the Green River at the

eastern edge of the park. The Green River then enters the Uintah Mountains

and passes through them at Lodore Canyon. The Yampa River enters the Uintah

10

Range at its eastern end and traverses it lengthwise until it joins the

Green River in the midst of the mountains at Echo Park. Other tributaries

to the Green River include Rye Grass and Pot creeks. The Yampa Plateau is a

subordinate uplift to the south of the Uintahs. This uplift, as well as the

Vermillion Bluffs and Cold Springs Mountains (O-WT-YU-KUTS Plateau), are

included in the Uintah Range.

Physiographic changes in this area have been relatively minor over the

past 20,000 years, with the last geologic event involving the glaciation of

the Rocky Mountains and resultant fluvial deposition in the lower mountains

and the basin.

Geologic Stratigraphy

The project area is dominated by sedimentary rocks, ranging in age from

Pre-Cambrian through Tertiary. The oldest rocks exposed are Precambrian,

which can be found in the Uintah Mountains, at Juniper Mountain and Cross

Mountain, and along the Park Range. The stratigraphic sequence for this

area is described in Table 1.

Most of the materials used for the construction of chipped stone tools

are crypto-crystalline varieties of quartz, which are all of secondary

origin and are found occasionally among the primary and metamorphic rocks of

the mountains. Secondary varieties are the product of many profound

geochemical changes and are therefore confined largely to the oldest members

of the sedimentary rock series. They are erratic in their occurrences

within the limestones and sandstones on the flanks of mountain masses where

the sediments have been folded, tilted, and later exposed by erosion. The

entire area of gravels in northwestern Colorado and southern Wyoming are

11

sources of compact boulders of many grades of quartzite. Many of the

sandstone formations of the Rocky Mountain region contain "sheet" zones of

quartzite that could be easily secured by prehistoric peoples for

manufacturing artifacts that did not require refinement. The Lithology

column on Table 1 further describes potential toolstone source areas that

may have been attractive to prehistoric groups.

Volcanic outcrops are found in the Elkhead Mountains and are exposed in

dikes throughout the Sand Wash Basin. The main body of the Wasatch

Formation (early Eocene) , which intertongues to the west and north with the

Green River Formation (early and middle Eocene is exposed in the floor of

the basin) , was formed by sediments that were largely steam deposited in a

sub-tropical lowland environment. In the late-early Eocene, periodic

regional uplift caused local upwarps, blocking stream drainages. From this

event, lake basins were developed in parts of Wyoming and Colorado. One of

these basins, Lake Gosiute, has provided scientists with a sedimentary

record for the Green River Formation. Areas where sediments of the Wasatch

Formation and Green River Formation intertongue reflect alternating

transgressions and regressions of the shoreline of the lake in response to

the prevailing environmental conditions.

A thick pebble and boulder conglomerate is exposed above the Laney Shale

(member of the Green River Formation) west of the Little Snake River. Sears

and Bradley (1924) suggest that this conglomerate is equivalent to that at

the base of the Brown's Park Formation (Miocene). Quaternary deposits are

located in limited areas throughout the Sand Wash Basin, with Holocene

alluvium occurring along the drainage floodplains. As John P. Albanese

(1978) points out, Holocene terraces are of particular interest to

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archaeologists because archaeological sites are commonly found on terrace

surfaces or within terrace sediments. Attempts have been made to use

terraces for relative dating of archaeological sites, and the identification

and correlation of these terraces have been conducted over parts of Wyoming

(Leopold and Miller 1954) and Colorado (Scott 1965). Based on these

studies, the terraces and their associated sediments have been used as time

equivalents and correlated over large areas. But, much of this early work

was done without the benefit of radiocarbon dates (Albanese 1978). It has

become apparent that in many cases Holocene terraces and associated terrace

alluvium are not time equivalent over large areas or even, in some cases,

within a local drainage base (Albanese 1978) . Many of these Holocene

terrace surfaces may be evolutional surfaces rather than depositional

features, and archaeological sites enclosed in these sediments on a given

terrace may vary considerably in age over short lateral distances. Even

though the terrace sequence and geomorphic appearance seem to be the same,

Holocene terraces in different drainage basins may be of different ages.

Until the Holecene alluvial stratigraphic sequence is further defined and

supported by radiometric data, caution must be employed when using terrace

sequences to date archaeological sites.

Eolian deposits of Holocene age are located throughout the basin in some

areas as sand dunes. Evidence for the use of parabolic sand dunes for bison

traps during the Paleo-Indian period at the Casper site has been presented

by Frison (1978). Sand dunes are common to several areas in the LSRA.

These dunes are stabilized and controlled by vegetation, but they

occasionally demonstrate areas of active sand movement. Short periods

without rain can bring about some sand movement. There probably has been

26

more than one sand movement in the area during the Holocene. Sites in sand

dunes are subjected to deferential erosion and, once exposed, rapid

deterioration of perishable material occurs, leaving the only evidence for

site occupation, stone artifacts, no longer in their original contexts.

Relating cultural levels in areas of deflation is difficult because

stratigraphic layers are seldom maintained during sand movement.

Conversely, sites in sand dunes may also be buried up to great depths and

stand little chance of exposure, except in accidental circumstances—such as

pipeline construction.

Climate

For the most part, the study area is situated in the western Colorado

semiarid steppe. The climate is highland continental, typical of the

mid-latitudes, with winds prevailing from the west. The protective

topography of the Sierra Nevada Mountains to the west and the Rocky

Mountains to the east greatly modifies the climate from those

characteristics that are typical of the mid-latitudes. Because the area is

located thousands of miles away from any major sources of moisture,

precipitation is generally light in the lower elevations because large

amounts of moisture are drawn off the air masses as they cross the Sierra

Nevadas to the west. Moist air from the Gulf of Mexico is blocked by the

Rocky Mountains.

It is difficult to generalize the climate of Routt and Moffat counties

as a whole because of local topographic changes. The rugged topography and

varied elevation of western Colorado causes large variations in climate

within short distances. Precipitation in the region increases as the

27

elevation increases from the western part of Colorado to the eastern

mountain ranges of the Continental Divide. Average precipitation data show

an increase of 7.6 inches from Hayden (elevation 6,375 ft.) to Steamboat

Springs (elevation 6,770 ft.), an elevation increase of 395 ft. over a

distance of only 25 miles. Precipitation within the study area varies from

less than 8 inches in the far western portion to more than 30 inches near

the Continental Divide. Table 2 describes the precipitation pattern based

on historical measurements at several locations in Routt and Moffat

counties. Most precipitaton in the summer comes from cloud bursts, forced

by topographic lifting and thermal convection, rather than from regional

storms. Lower elevations receive somewhat more precipitation in the summer

than in the winter months. The largest portion of precipitation above 8,000

ft. comes in the form of snow during the winter months.

Temperature data throughout the study region exhibit wide variations

from one location to another and with respect to annual and diurnal

extremes. These fluctuations are attributed to topography and to the

TABLE 2

PRECIPITATION PATTERNS FROM WEST TO EAST

Location Annual Summer Winter Snowfall

Maybell (5920') 11"

Craig (6440') 13.7" 7.6" 6.1" 61.2"

Meeker (6240') 15.6" 8.6" 7.0" 69.0"

Hayden (6375') 15.3" 7.8" 7.5" 96.7"

Steamboat (6770') 23.3" 10.2" 13.1" 165.4"Springs

28

predominantly dry air that allows rapid surface heating and cooling.

o oAverage temperatures on mountain tops are often less than C (32 F)

,

and the higher valleys can be extremely cold during the winter months.

Table 3 displays the freeze data at selected sites in the Yampa Valley. The

growing season ranges from 94 days in Craig to 28 days in Steamboat

Springs. There is a possibility of below freezing temperatures occurring in

the Craig area year-round and a chance of greater than 95 F temperature

occurring during the midsummer months of June, July, and August.

TABLE 3

FREEZE DATA AT SELECTED SITES IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO(Adapted from NW Coal EIS 1976, p. 11-31)

Mean Date Mean Date Mean NumberFreeze Spring Fall Days Between

Location Temperature Occurrence Occurrence Dates

Craig 0.0°C 6/8 9/10 94

Hayden 0.0°C 5/27 8/26 76

Meeker 0.0°C 6/11 9/10 91

Steamboat 0.0°C 6/23 7/21 28Springs

Horticulture

Length of growing season is of particular interest when considering the

feasibility of prehistoric agriculture in northwestern Colorado. Dryland

farming of maize requires enough moisture in the ground to sprout the seed

and keep it growing until the summer storms begin. A good crop depends on

midsummer rains, and the climate today does not regularly supply enough

29

moisture for dryland farming of corn. The growing season is rather short

for corn, which requires approximately 90 days to mature.

The presence of stored maize has been discovered in several locations in

Moffat County (5MF70, 73, 94) and in Dinosaur National Monument in Colorado

(Hell's Midden, Mantle Cave, and Ladder Shelter). The two critical

variables, moisture and temperature, could have been modified to support

small gardening ventures. Plot aspect on south facing slopes in sheltered

locations would extend the growing season, and irrigation or watering could

increase the effective moisture. Early explorer and photographer W.H.

Jackson (1876) noted corn growing without irrigation by the (Weminuche) Ute

in southeastern Utah in 1874. An early harvest time, rather than waiting

for full corn maturation, would also shorten the growing season. Professor

Hayden's exploration party was entertained with a feast of green corn by the

Ute in the LaSal Mountain region (American Naturalist 1877). Among the

Southern Paiutes, horticulture was probably not the major subsistence

activity during Prehistoric times but was apparently practised by all

groups. The absence of this activity among the Ute and Shoshone of western

Utah distinguished them from the horticulturalists (Steward 1938).

Historic Euro-American farming was practiced in the parks on the canyon

floor of Dinosaur National Monument, but was restricted to orchard and

garden crops (Burgh and Scoggin 1948). The growing season normally was May

1 to October 15, a total of 168 days. On the Mantle Ranch in Castle Park,

sweet corn, garden crops, and fruit trees were cultivated under irrigation

with few crop failures (Steward 1938).

30

There are few regions in the study area that are more than 50 miles from

places where corn growing would have been possible on a prehistoric,

marginal scale, probably as a seasonal adjunct to a hunting economy.

Brown's Park, portions of the Little Snake and Yampa River valleys, and

perhaps the Williams Forks river valley may all have provided potential

gardening plots for prehistoric farmers.

This evidence so far points to the possibility that corn may have been

grown on a small scale in northwestern Colorado from the Prehistoric period

well into the Historic period. Perhaps this tradition of casual, ancillary

corn growing survived among certain Ute bands

.

Paleoenvironment

Only one paleoenvironmental study has been conducted within the LSRA.

Pollen analysis of samples collected from a series of excavated sites

southwest of Craig, at Round Bottom, shows no marked changes in floral

communities since the end of the Pleistocene (Arthur, et al. 1985).

Data recovered from surrounding regions indicate that for the past 8,000

to 10,000 years (or since the Pleistocene), environmental fluctuations have

not been particularly severe. Precipitation and temperature pattern changes

probably resulted in shifts in environmental zone boundaries but not in

overall changes in the placement of plant communities.

In the southwestern United States, late Quaternary alluvial chronology

studies suggest a cyclical occurrance of droughts and comparatively moist

times since the end of the Wisconsin glaciation (Antevs 1955; Schoenwetter

1970; Bryson and Wendland 1967; and Haynes 1966).

31

Ernst Antevs (1948, 1955) hypothesized the occurrence of three major

climatic periods: the Anathermal, dated from circa 7000 to 5600 B.C., a

time of climatic conditions similar to the present; the Altithermal, 5500 to

2500 B.C., often referred to as the great drought; and the Medithermal,

which includes the present and is characterized by conditions of increased

moisture, punctuated by a series of droughts.

Later studies have questioned the accurracy of Antevs' scheme and argue

the importance of the effect of Holocene climatic oscillations on

prehistoric populations. Schoenwetter (1970) identifies shorter-termed

climatic oscillations during the past 2000 years; and J. Jennings (1978)

sees only localized, short-term climatic changes within a general warming

and drying trend since the end of the Pleistocene.

Madsen and Currey (1979) present a more specific outline of paleo-

climatic trends. A period of relatively cool weather probably followed the

final retreat of the Pleistocene glacial maxima that persisted until

approximately 6050 B.C. A minor glacial advance and recession brought about

more stabilized conditions from 4050 B.C. until the Christian era, which

were generally more moist than the average Holocene conditions.

The last 2,000 years are characterized by relatively greater

variability, which may be the result of better data for this time period

(Jones and MacKay 1980:9). The first millennia A.D. is characterized by

greater available moisture and more even annual distribution of rainfall,

followed by general dessication in the southwest ca. A.D. 1200.

Cooler temperatures and increased moisture occurred during a period of

renewed glaciation between A.D. 1500 and A.D. 1850. This was followed by a

return to warmer temperatures and dessication in the later 1800s.

32

Recurring periods of alpine glaciation, indicating alternative

warmer-drier and cooler-moister conditions, existed since the Altithermal

(Benedict 1975). Glacial advances, particularly the Triple Lakes (A.D. 3050

to 1050 B.C.), the Audubon (A.D. 100 to 1000 B.C.), and the Arapahoe Peak

(A.D. 650 to 1850 B.C.) have been associated with moderate conditions and

interspersed with somewhat warmer and drier interstades.

Excavations conducted in the Canyon Pintado Historic District at

Dripping Brow Cave revealed alternating dry and moist conditions, starting

with a relatively dry and stable environment before A.D. 700. This period

was followed by a shift to more moist conditions around A.D. 850, and a

return to a drier environment near A.D. 1100. From A.D. 1300 to A.D. 1500,

a renewed, relatively moist period occurred. After A.D. 1500, the area

again experienced a drying trend (Creasman 1981).

Studies at the Brady site revealed a shift in alluvial deposition

occurring around A.D. 800. Before this time, alluvium was deposited by

spring runoff. Post A.D. 800 there was a shift to the present day pattern

of summer thunderstorm deposition, where alluvium is drawn from the side

canyons feeding into Douglas Creek (Creasman 1981) . This shift coincides

with observations of drier conditions for this period during a number of

studies mentioned above.

Until more local data are available, a very general approach is

necessary regarding the application of paleoenvironmental reconstructions

from outside areas to the study area. Although local conditions are in part

influenced by extra-regional events, local factors still exert a heavy

influence. With a generally unchanging vegetative cover overall, present

33

day floral and faunal species have remained relatively much the same since

prehistoric peoples first used the area.

Flora

The vegetational ecology in the study area is a complex mosaic strongly

influenced by soils, climate, aspect, altitude, grazing, and general land-

use history. Moisture is most often the major limiting factor for the

distribution of vegetation on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains

(James and Marr 1966).

Eight primary and two secondary vegetative types are found in the study

area. The primary types are grassland, sagebrush, mountain shrub, conifer,

pinyon-juniper, saltbush, greasewood, and cropland. The secondary types are

aspen and riparian.

Conifer . The conifer type usually occurs in areas of highest

elevation, coolest soils, highest annual precipitation, and in areas with

the most snow accumulation. It grows in the Elkhead Mountains and Park

Range, along the north slope of Douglas Mountain, along Irish Canyon and the

Vermillion Bluffs, and in some areas of the Uintahs near Middle Mountain and

Diamond Peak.

In the eastern part of the LSRA, the dominant conifers are Douglas fir,

Englemann spruce, and sub-alpine fir. Douglas fir, lodgepole pine, and

ponderosa pine dominate the western part of the study area. Understory

vegetation varies with the stand location, density, and stage of

succession. Generally, the understory includes mountain brome, bluegrass,

huckleberry, lupine, current, and aster. Dense stands have little or no

vegetative understudy, but they provide cover for livestock, deer, and elk.

Where openings occur in the conifer type, mountain shrub species occur.

34

Aspen . The aspen type occurs in areas where soils are well developed

and soil moisture conditions are good. This is often a transition zone

between the mountain shrub and conifer types. Aspen occurs as relatively

small, open- to-very dense stands on north or protected slopes at higher

elevations. Aspen reproduces vigorously in cut-over or burned areas within

the conifer type because of the clonal, common root system nature of the

species.

Quaking aspen are the dominant species, with an understory of snowberry,

carex, larkspur, geranium, mountain brome, timothy, wheatgrass, and

bluegrass. Aspen supports many animal species: deer and elk, whose

migration routes and fawning/calving areas often occur in aspen stands;

moose; and raptors, which commonly nest in aspen.

Mountain Shrub . At lower elevations (5,000 to 7,000 ft.) the mountain

shrub type develops where moisture is adequate throughout spring and summer,

and soils are deep and well drained. The mountain shrub type is

characterized by its variability

—

a single species does not dominate the

type in very large areas. The variability is the result of differing soil

moisture conditions and soil depths found on the mountain slopes of the

region. Common species are Utah serviceberry, western serviceberry, and

gambel's oak. Scrub oak stands become dominated by serviceberry on sites

where moisture is somewhat limited.

The absence of coniferous species on many north-facing slopes supports

Brown's premise (1958) of ecological stability in mountain shrub

communities. He further suggests that the density of the scrub oak type has

not changed considerably since the late 1800s. Scrub oak exists in

extensive stands along the Williams Fork Mountains, along the Danforth

35

Hills, at the base of the Elkheads, and along Cedar Springs and Deception

Creek southwest of Maybell.

In the eastern portion of the study area, the mountain shrub type

usually exists as a transition zone between aspen and sagebrush types. In

the western portion of the study area, it occurs on sandy soil where

favorable moisture conditions exist. It is usually surrounded by

sagebrush. (The mountain shrub type is found on slopes and sagebrush is

found on the flatter, deeper, heavier soils.)

Sagebrush . Sagebrush communities become prominant in lower

elevations and drier conditions. This type dominates areas with well

drained soils where moisture limits other vegetation. Just west of Maybell,

on excessively drained, sandy soil, there is a unique community of nearly

pure antelope bitterbrush, approximately 40 square miles in size, that

provides important big game winter range and critical habitat for blue

grouse and songbirds (Department of the Interior 1976).

The sagebrush vegetative type occupies more acreage than any other type

within the study area. It occurs throughout the study area in stands that

range from a few plants to an area approximately 1,500 square miles in

north-central Moffat County. This type can be found adjacent to all other

vegetative types in the area. It is dominated by sagebrush, with a variable

understory of perennial grasses and forbs. Annuals fluctuate year to year,

depending on spring temperatures and moisture conditions. There are various

species of sagebrush in the study area: basin big sage, Wyoming big sage,

low sage, and black sage. Sagebrush provides sage grouse with food, cover,

nesting, brood- rearing areas, and strutting grounds; it is also an important

food source for native ungulates in the region.

36

Pinyon-Juniper . Pinyon -Juniper is located in areas where available

moisture is similar to moisture for sagebrush type, but where the soils are

very shallow or nearly nonexistent. It occurs on outcrops or where bedrock

is close to the surface, because of the inability of this coniferous species

to tolerate the accumulation of fine soil particles around the roots.

Northwestern Colorado is near the northern limit of the pinyon, and

therefore its occurrence in the project area is limited. Other limiting

factors may be historical disturbances such as fire and disease. Juniper is

known to recover from disturbance more readily than pinyon (Woodbury 1947).

Pinyon-juniper occurs throughout most of northwestern Colorado and is

quite extensive in the far western portions. Tree species of this type are

pinyon, Utah juniper, and Rocky Mountain juniper, which is being the most

dominant. Typical understory plants are big sagebrush, rabbitbrush, Indian

ricegrass, western wheatgrass, prickly pear, antelope bitterbrush, and phlox.

The understory ranges from extremely sparse, enclosed stands and

increases, largely as shrubs, when the stands open up. On steep slopes and

rock outcrops, the only perennial vegetative layer present may be the

trees. This type provides food and cover for mule deer, and raptors use the

junipers as nest -sites and perches.

Saltbush/Greaswood . Saltbush and greasewood types are found in areas

with the lowest precipitation and elevation. They are the dominant type on

saline-alkaline soils that are poorly drained and often underdeveloped.

These places include low elevation drainage bottoms, alluvial fans, and

basin floodplains. The greasewood type is primarily composed of fairly

dense stands of medium height shrubs, dominated by greasewood with a sparse

grass-forb understory. Other shrubs that appear in more open stands are

37

rabbitbrush, fourwing saltbush, and big sagebrush. The understory may-

consist of wheatgrass, squirrel tail, Indian ricegrass, bluegrass, carex,

and cheatgrass. Pronghorn antelope, mule deer, and golden eagle may inhabit

this community. Black-footed ferrets may also occur in this habitat.

The saltbush type occurs on soils that are moderately saline-alkaline

and are slightly better drained than those supporting the greasewood type.

Saltbush is found in large, rolling, semiarid basins, and on lower foothill

slopes along drainage bottoms. This type occurs as mixed stands of

low-growing shrubs dominated by Nuttall saltbush, fourwing saltbush, and

shadscale. Associated species are big sagebrush, black sagebrush,

bottlebrush, squirreltail, spineless horsebrush, spiny hopsage, cheatgrass,

Indian ricegrass, western wheatgrass, and Sandberg bluegrass. The saltbush

type is generally regarded as a valuable winter range for pronghorn antelope

and mule deer, since it occupies lower elevations where large amounts of

snow do not accumulate. The black-footed ferret may also occur here.

Grassland . The grassland type occurs in a wide variety of areas that

range from deep soils in wet mountain meadows to dry, rocky hillsides.

Grassland types in the region have seriously deteriorated, and many areas

converted to sagebrush because of historical overgrazing by cattle. Native

grassland vegetation occurs in scattered small meadows, in numerous small

patches on wind swept ridge tops, and on uppermost south slopes. It is

usually found in the shallow soils of exposed ridges, in deep mesa soils, on

gentle sloping foothill terraces, and on alluvial fans in valley bottoms.

This type of vegetation is composed of perennial bunch-grasses

intermixed with forbs, half shrubs, an occasional shrub species, and annual

grasses. In the eastern part of the study area, grasslands are dominated by

38

needle -and-thread grass, Columbia needlegrass, green needlegrass, brome, and

timothy grass. Western wheatgrass, needle-and-thread grass, June grass,

bluegrass, sedge, and Indian ricegrass are the dominant species in the

central and western portions of this region.

Riparian . The riparian type occurs along main drainages throughout

the LSRA, essentially bordering the entire distance of rivers. It is

usually too small to be differentially classified from the surrounding

vegetation, but can be divided into four subtypes: 1) groves of deciduous

trees, 2) marshlands, 3) open grasslands, and 4) rocky canyons.

Deciduous groves include mostly narrowleaf cottonwood, boxelder, dense

thickets of willow with red-osier dogwood, and hawthorn. Ninety-five

percent of the river bottom trees are cottonwood. Understory species

primarily consist of Sandberg blue grass, inland saltgrass, western

wheatgrass, smooth brome, rushes, and sedges. The marshlands extend from

the river to the adjacent flat lands. Dominant plant species that occur in

this subtype include rushes, cattails, sedges, squirrel tail, cheatgrass,

Junegrass, and needle-and-thread grass.

Open grasslands consist primarily of inland saltgrass, western

wheatgrass, carex, Sandberg bluegrass, and squirrel tail. The vegetation

changes to a shrub type, dominated by greasewood, in areas that are more

saline-alkaline and where the water table is deeper.

The rocky canyon areas are very small and usually contain little

vegetation. Frequently, the only perennial plant species is juniper.

The scarcity and diversity of the riparian type makes this a valuable

habit for many bird and animal species. Songbirds, waterfowl, raptors, and

sagegrouse nest and rear their young in riparian zones. It is also an

39

important habitat for bald eagle, sandhill crane, peregrine falcon, and

whooping crane. Deer, elk, and moose, as well as other wildlife species not

found in other vegetative types such as racoon, mink, and beaver, find food

and cover in this habitat.

Some areas of the riparian type have been converted to croplands, which

consist mainly of irrigated and nonirrigated dryland wheat fields and hay

fields located in natural meadows, in valley bottoms, on adjacent mesas, and

along slopes in the river bottoms. Salt accumulation in low places where

irrigation is plentiful has produced small saline areas unsuitable for plant

growth.

Ethnographic Use of Vegetative Resouces

Although it is not yet feasible to quantify past food resources or

biomass, it is possible to suggest that the common or dominant plants that

characterize these communities today are not much different than those of

the past 3,000 years. Prehistoric populations probably relied on a small

series of plants and animals whose range intersected several environmental

zones rather than relying on a single environmental zone (Flannery 1971).

As hunters and gatherers, prehistoric populations lived entirely within

their environmental means. The area in which they resided provided raw

materials needed for food, tools, utensils, fuel, clothing, and medicine.

Plants often served more than one use: sage was used as fuel, in basketry,

for medicine, for clothing, and for shelter by the historical Ute (Smith

1974). Serviceberry and cottonwood were equally as versatile.

40

Table 4 lists plant material remains recovered by macro-floral and

pollen analyses conducted at excavated sites within or bordering the LSRA.

It also includes the hypothesized ethnographic use for the plant. This

table represents a storage shelter (42UN1103); two dry shelters (Mantles'

Cave, Sheep Shelter); three open-dwelling sites (Whole Place, Fremont

Playhouse, Hell's Midden, all located in Dinosaur National Monument); one

open campsite; three lithic chipping stations (Muddy Creek, located on

Rabbit Ears Pass); and eight open sites, three of which are situated in dune

deposits along the Trailblazer Pipeline in southern Wyoming.

This table represents only a fraction of the floral assemblages, because

of differential preservation of carbonized remains and the general lack of

floral studies at tested and excavated sites in the LSRA. Whole classes of

materials, in particular fibers and reeds, are often not represented because

of their fragile state. Absence or presence of certain groups of plant

material may indicate site function. Storage shelters often lack monocot

fibers and common reeds (Liestman 1984:17). The type of plant parts

recovered may indicate the level of floral processing or storage that

occurred at the site and season in which they were deposited.

The uses ascribed to each species are known from ethnographic accounts

of the Gosiute and other Numic-speaking tribes, and from Steward's (1938),

Chamberlain's (1911), and Smith's (1974) works with the Northern Ute in

northwestern Colorado. Only Indian groups known to have frequented the area

in historic times are represented in the table.

Several of the exploitable plants such as goosefoot, pigweed, sunflower,

ricegrass, and prickly pear grow at different elevations and in various

vegetative communities so that at a given time, a particular species might

41

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be mature at one elevation but not at another. With proximity of resources

at various elevations, human groups merely had to move short distances to

prolong the period of availability. Location of base camps would be shifted

through altitudinal zones in response to resource availability. High

country adaptation models addressing the problems of hunter-gather resource

exploitation have been presented by Wright, Bender, and Reese (1980); their

hypotheses await further support and testing.

Steward (1938) divides Shoshone subsistence activities into four

seasonal periods. In early spring, when stored foods were running low, the

first edible "greens'* growing along streams and lowland marshes and on low

hills were eaten. By early summer the people left their winter villages to

gather seeds and other plants as the resources ripened in the valleys,

hills, and high plateaus. Later, summer brought the maturation of roots and

berries. By early fall the pinyon nuts were ready for harvest, and families

flocked to the nearest locality to gather and store these nuts. Nuts were

cached in groves, or if a grove was near the winter camp, they were carried

back to camp. Winter was spent in villages that were located in canyon

areas or within the pinyon groves where an abundant harvest had occurred.

The high country snows, appearing during the fall, forced both human and

animal populations to lower elevations, where late ripening crops such as

pinyon nuts and juniper berries were harvested and stored.

Grady (1980) reconstructed a similar seasonal round of economic

activities for the Piceance Basin based on climate and the prehistoric

exploitation of floral and faunal resources, especially deer. This model

may be applicable to the LSRA.

46

This pattern of resource exploitation and seasonal movement is thought

to have begun in the Archaic period and survived well into the Historic

period. For hunting and gathering groups following this lifeway, which

stressed intensive utilization of a wide variety of resources and proper

exploitation based on seasonal movement, an extensive knowledge of plants

and their availability, as well as local animal behavior, was required.

A third model devised for the Fremont in southern Utah depicts a

seasonal situation where the harvesting schedule was controlled to a high

degree by the demands of agriculture. This model suggests agriculture as a

dominant concern from May through September, with the collection of autumn

seeds thereafter, and deer hunting during the winter when their range was

limited by deep snowcover and lack of browse in the foothills. Stored foods

were relied upon throughout the winter and into the early spring months

(J. Jennings 1978)

.

The practice of extensive horticulture would have had an effect on the

gathering of certain plants, which would have conflicted with domestic

gardening efforts. A modified seasonal scenario for the Fremont, who may

have occupied the LSRA, might be a shift in focus where gardening in a

somewhat marginal area of the canyonlands was carried out by certain members

of the community, such as the very young and the elderly. The main

emphasis, however, remained on gathering wild, more dependable, and storable

foodstuffs by adults traveling to the uplands and sending parties back to

the villages with harvested foods. In this case, results of the gardening

effort is not the main concern, but rather an ancillary effort augmenting

the wild plant and faunal resources.

47

Exceptions to the general pattern of gathering wild foods have been

described by Julian Steward (1938), based on ethnographic accounts. The

coaxing of native plant species by lowland irrigation was conducted by the

Owens Valley Northern Paiute. Certain wild seeds, especially Chenopodium

and Mentzelia . were broadcast sown by several groups in east-central

Nevada. Horticulture was practiced by Southern Paiute and in post-Contact

times by some Shoshone groups.

The presence of Oryzopsis hymenoides , Indian ricegrass, in four of the

vegetative communities offers an opportunity to study aboriginal use of the

species, especially where it occurs in dune areas. Indian ricegrass seeds

ripen between late spring and early summer, depending on rainfall and

elevation and ordinarily can only be collected during a short two- to three-

week period (Holmer 1979:43). This vital resource bridges the gap between

early spring greens and late summer berries and nut resources. The seed is

also very drought resistant, lying dormant on the ground for up to 7 years

and germinating with the first rainfall. Even with enhanced dune activity,

ricegrass could recover quickly and repopulate a sand dune area.

With these attributes, Indian ricegrass may have been an attractive

resource, which brought prehistoric populations into dune areas in early

summer. This suggestion, made and supported by Holmer (1979), is further

documented by ethnographic data from the Basin-Plateau aboriginal

communities (Steward 1938:230-231), Wheat (1967), and by ethnographic data

from the southern Paiute (King and Casebier 1976). These references

describe the seed- harvesting, sand-dune campsites similar to those found by

Holmer (1979) during the Split Mountain survey and may well apply to sites

located in dune areas of Sandwash and Powderwash in the LSRA.

48

The restricted range and undependability of Pinus edulis , due to its

scarcity and unpredictable seed production, may preclude the use of local

pinyon as a major food resource for aboriginal people in the LSRA.

Ethnographic accounts note the collection of Pinus edulis by Ute and

Shoshone groups. But according to Steward (1938), these groups frequently

travelled to western Utah to obtain Pinus monophylla . In areas where pinyon

was present, the cones were harvested by the Shoshone during a two- to three

week period in the fall. After harvest, the seeds were too heavy to

transport any great distance. Consequently, people wintered near pinyon

caches located in the mountainous forests or, if the harvest was nearer to

their habitual winter camps, they returned to the camp and packed down the

nuts from caches, as needed (Steward 1938:27).

Because of the lack of major producing pinyon groves in the LSRA, there

was an early fall food-gathering period within seasonal rounds, as described

by Steward. For prehistoric and protohistoric groups in the LSRA to follow

Steward's (1938) model, long, early fall journeys outside of the resource

area to producing pinyon groves may have been taken. Conceivably, these

prehistoric groups may not have returned until spring. An alternate model

may be that some other storagable and more prolific food resource may have

been substituted, such as Gambel's oak or perhaps deer. However, ubiquitous

scrub oak was used only sparingly according to Stewart (1973). This is due

to irregular production and possibly the difficulty of preparation for

consumption, which requires a large volume of water to percolate out the

tannic acids. No oak floral remains have been recovered from excavated

sites in the LSRA.

49

Fauna

Although fauna in the LSRA has not been studied in detail, both nearby

and regional studies have shown that a wide variety of wildlife exists in

the area. Mammal distribution studies in Colorado (Armstrong 1972), Utah

(Durrant 1952), and Wyoming (Long 1965) reveal that at least 47 species of

mammals could occur in this resource area. Over 200 bird species have been

recorded (BLM 1978:11-63).

Big game present in the LSRA include mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus )

.

pronghorn antelope ( Antilocapra americana) , elk ( Cervus elaphus ) , black bear

(Ursus americanus ) , mountain lion (Felis concolor ) , and bighorn sheep (Ovis

canadensis). The mule deer are now "the most conspicuous, numerous, and

economically valuable big game species in northwestern Colorado." A variety

of small game also inhabit the study area.

Mule Deer . Mule deer distribution is throughout Moffat County, with

critical winter ranges located along the lower Yampa and Green rivers and

around Fortification Creek. Winter range for one of the largest migrating

mule deer herds on this continent is located in the Piceance Basin (Bartmann

1968) . Mule deer apparently return to the same seasonal ranges each year

(Stanton 1974), migrating from brief summer ranges at higher elevations to

lower elevations for the winter. Seasonal spring movements coincide with

rising temperatures, retreating snow pack, and greening forage. Summer

ranges that are occupied are usually diverse mixtures of coniferous forests,

meadows, aspen woodland, and alpine tundra. Montane shrub and

pinyon-juniper forests are typical winter ranges.

PronRhorn Antelope . Pronghorn are herbivores and represent a unique

resource because they are endemic only to North America. They occupy two

50

basic habitats, grasslands and shrublands. Moffat County contains the

largest and most widespread herds in northwestern Colorado. Pronghorn

antelope concentration areas are located in the upper reaches of Sand Wash,

between Vermillion and Dry Creeks, along the Little Snake River, and near

Lay Creek. Winter ranges also occur in these areas, although somewhat

expanded, with the additional range along the Green River, where it flows

through Brown's Park, near Deception Creek, and in a small area northwest of

Elk Springs.

As with mule deer (and elk) , pronghorn movement depends largely on snow

conditions and thus may vary sharply from year to year. They have been

called "one type species," because of their tendency to occupy open range

land areas where the expanses are characterized by gently rolling terrain

(Kindschy et al. 1978).

Barriers to pronghorn movement restrict habitat availability and

possible migration paths. Large bodies of water, large rivers, deep

canyons, steep ridges, and extensive stands of thick bushes and trees may

also prohibit movement. Slopes approaching 30 percent are avoided by

pronghorn.

Elk . Historic distribution of elk in northwestern Colorado is

believed to have been extensive. Winter ranges, normally in valley bottoms,

on lower portions of narrow, tributary canyons, and on low hillsides, were

common.

In Colorado, elk movement between summer and winter range is generally

considered only shifts in elevation. Elk summer range is characterized by

large, open parks, surrounded by dense stands of conifer forests. Critical

winter ranges are located along Fortification Creek, within Brown's Park,

and at the lower elevations of the Williams Fork Mountains.

51

Black Bear . Black bear are usually solitary, secretive, and

historically were regarded (along with all bears) as "dangerous, stock

killers, and generally undesirable" (NCWC 1982:31). This led to the

extirpation of the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis ) and a great

reduction of the black bear population in Colorado. Bear distribution data

for Moffat County is unknown, although bear distribution for Routt is

countywide, with the highest densities in the northern portion. Bear

habitat typically includes nonforested areas, where wet meadows, riparian

areas, avalanche chutes, and sub-alpine ridge tops are found, and in

forested areas, where fruit bearing and seed producing shrubs and trees are

common. Denning habitats are reported in a variety of vegetative

communities. Wind falls, hollow trees, caves in mature forests, and gambel

oak communities have all been used by bear (Jonkel 1978).

Mountain Lion . The Mountain lion is also a large, secretive

carnivore, found generally west of the Little Snake River, in Moffat

County. No specific distribution information is available for Routt

County. Winter ranges are located in the Vermillion, Little Snake, and Sand

Wash drainage basins. Lions require a diverse habitat that must include

cover for general concealment. Lions are associated with pinyon-juniper

stands, ponderosa pine communities, mountain mahogany, and oak brush

(Russell 1978). Since lions must maintain contact with prey populations,

seasonal distribution shifts are in concert with prey distribution,

particularly mule deer.

Bighorn Sheep . Bighorn distribution in northwest Colorado is thought

to have been historically quite extensive. Sheep are known to have ranged

in the rugged country of Routt County and in the Yampa and Green River

52

canyons. Bighorn presently occur along both sides of Ladore Canyon in

Dinosaur National Monument and have been transplanted in Cross Mountain and

along Beaver Creek. Bighorn sheep are highly social, behaviorally

specialized animals that return to the same ranges year after year (Geist

1971) . Seasonal ranges and migration routes are passed from generation to

generation, through learned behavior. Therefore, these animals cannot adapt

easily to habitat change. Most herds show either migration from summer to

winter ranges or seasonal drifts to wintering areas (Wishart 1975).

Small Game and NonRame Mammals Small game mammals include: snowshoe

hare ( Lepus americanus ) , white-tailed jackrabbit ( Lepus townsendii)

,

nuttall's cottontail ( SylvilaRus nuttallii ) , desert cottontail ( SylvilaRus

audubonii ) , and red squirrel ( Tamiasciurus hudsonicus ) . Small game mammals,

considered by Colorado statue as "varmints," occurring in the LSRA are:

porcupine ( Erethizon dorsatum ) , muskrat ( Ondatra zibethicus) , skunk

( SpiloRale putoris and mephitis ) , raccoon ( Procyon lotor ) , two species of

gopher ( Thomomys spp . ) , yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota f laviventris )

,

squirrel ( Spermophilus spp . ) , white -tailed prairie dog ( Cynomys leucurus)

,

and coyote (Canis latrans )

.

Principal furbearers found in this area are beaver ( Castor canadensis )

,

muskrat ( Ondatra zibethicus ) , mink (Mustela vison ) , weasel (Mustela spp . )

,

marten (Martes americana) , badger ( Taxidea taxus) , bobcat (Felis rufus )

,

ringtail (Bassariscus astutus ) , and fox (Vulpus vulpes , Urocyon

cinereoarRenteus )

.

Common nongame mammals in the study area include: pika ( Ochotona

princeps ) . Ord's kangeroo rat ( Dipodomys ordii ) , wolverine (Gulo gulo),

river otter (Lutra canadensis ) , black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) , lynx

53

( Felis lynx ) . five species of vole ( Sorex spp . ) , eleven species of mouse

( PeroRnathus spp , , Zapus spp . , Reithrodontomys spp . , Onychomys spp . )

,

chipmunk (Eutamias spp . ) , woodrat (Neotoma spp. ) , shrew ( Sorex spp . ) » and

fourteen species of bat.

Several mammals in the LSRA with threatened or endangered status are

lynx, wolverine, otter, and black footed ferret. Mammals, now locally

extinct but once occurring in the study area, include grizzly bear (Ursus

horribilis ) , gray wolf (Canis lupus ) , and bison ( Bison bison )

.

Birds . Upland gamebirds occurring in this study area include: blue

grouse ( DendraRapus obscurus ) , sage grouse ( Centrocercus urophasianus )

,

sharptail grouse ( Tympanuchus phasianellus ) , and mourning dove ( Zenaidura

macroura ) . Sage grouse is the most common bird found in sagebrush

vegetation, and they return to the same traditional strutting grounds each

year to carry out mating rituals. Mourning dove occur throughout the area

during the spring and summer, migrating out of the area in winter.

Waterfowl . The Green, Yampa, and Little Snake rivers provide good

spring and summer habitat for many migratory species of waterfowl. Over 50

different species of waterfowl and shorebirds have been recorded within the

resource area boundaries. Four species of geese breed and/or migrate

through the study area. All species of dabbling duck are quite common

during spring and winter migrations, although the resource area is not a

major duck breeding area (NCWC 1982:13). The mallard and green-winged teal

are the most common wintering species in the Yampa River Valley (Boeker

1953). The greater sandhill crane, considered an endangered species in

Colorado, often mate and nest in this area.

54

Raptors . Cliffs in this area also provide abundant nesting habitat

for raptors such as the golden eagle ( Aquila chrysaetos ) , bald eagle

(Haliaeetus leucocephalus ) , red-tailed hawk ( Buteo .jamaicensis ) , and falcon

( Falco spp . ) . Numerous other perching and nonperching bird species occupy

the woodlands and shrublands of this region, but most occur only as summer

residents and migrate out of the area during the winter months.

Fish . Only 13 species of native fish exist in the Colorado River

basin. They include mountain white fish ( Prosopiun williamsoni ) , mountain

sucker ( Catostomus p latyrhynchus ) , cut-throat trout ( Salmo clarki ) , sculpin

( Cottus bairdi) , speckled dace ( Rhinichthys spp . ) , round tail chub ( Gila

robusta) , and squaw fish ( Ptychocheilus lucius )

.

The upper Yampa and its tributaries are typically trout waters. The

Yampa characteristically changes from cold water to warm water in an

westward direction, changing from waters dominated by trout, white fish, and

suckers in Routt County to waters dominated by chub, carp, squawfish,

catfish, suckers, and trout at the confluence of the Green and Yampa rivers

in Moffat County.

The Yampa is significant for squawfish, currently on the Federal List of

Threatened Wildlife and Colorado List of Endangered Species. Numerous adult

species are found in the river. They migrate from upstream, above Juniper

Canyon, to just outside of Craig. Occasional specimens of humpback chub and

razorback sucker, also endangered species, have been found in the lower

Yampa up to Cross Mountain Canyon.

55

EthnoRraphic Use of Faunal Resources

Assuming the variety and number of wildlife species located in this area

today was not historically very different, the faunal species would have

been an important factor in the subsistance economy of prehistoric hunting

and gathering groups. Table 5 lists faunal remains from excavated sites

located within, or near, the LSRA and their ethnographic uses by Numic

groups known to have occupied the area. Caution is necessary, however, when

relating present behavior and distributions of animal species to the

prehistoric periods. Habits of most larger game animals have been altered

because of the introduction of domestic animals, control of predators,

fencing, habitat changes, controlled hunting, and other modern factors.

Many of the larger animals, such as elk and bighorn sheep, were large

enough to be considered attractive prey to hunting and gathering groups.

But, in most cases, the small populations of these animals, as compared to

deer and antelope, probably precluded their use as a reliable and stable

food source. Bears were hunted by the Ute groups, but to a lesser extent

than either elk or bighorn, because of their lower numbers and because of

the bear's strength and ferocity.

The presence of bison in the area is of particular interest because of

its importance in the diet of early big game hunters. Bison frequented the

parks and valleys of the Colorado Rockies, even ranging above timberline,

although they were never as numerous as on the plains. The Dominguez-

Escalante expedition of 1776 noted bison near the present-day town of

Rangely (Chavez 1976). E. Willard Smith and others hunted bison along the

Yampa and Little Snake rivers (Hafen and Hafen 1955). The last recorded

56

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occurrence of bison in Northwestern Colorado was one killed by the Utes at

Cedar Springs west of Craig in 1884 (Armstrong 1972). Bison skulls and

remains have been found by local inhabitants in the Axial Basin, along

Fortification Creek, at Juniper Mountain, and in Douglas Mountain. Stucky

(1974) recovered evidence of butchered bison remains at 5MF625 in the Sand

Wash Basin. A rock art panel south of the town of Hayden depicts a

"lifesize" bison/mammoth pictograph rendered in blue pigment.

Bison were never numerous west of the Rocky Mountains, perhaps because

of the lack of vast grasslands. They were evidently not hunted on a large

scale until after introduction of the horse, when native bands traveled

eastward. Utes from all parts of Utah hunted bison in the Uintah Basin

until the bison became extinct in the 1830s (Smith 1974:53). Trips were

also made into southwestern Wyoming and east of the Rockies onto the plains

(Smith 1974:53).

Communal antelope drives were conducted by Shoshone groups taking

advantage of herding tendencies, excessive curiosity, and poor jumping

abilities of these animals. Large groups of Indians, on foot, spread out

over miles of country would slowly drive the antelope into a corral (Steward

1938). Ute groups built long converging wings of brush and poles, ending in

a V-shape at the edge of a well disguised, but low cliff. Below the cliff

was a corral. Sometimes as many as 200 antelope were driven down the wings,

over the cliff, and into the corral, where they were killed (Smith

1974:55). Mounted Shoshonean groups surrounded a bunch of antelope and,

taking turns, ran them in circles until the animals collapsed from fatigue

and then easily killed them (Wilson and Driggs 1919). Antelope trapping was

apparently so successful in parts of the Great Basin that several years were

62

required to regenerate the populations (Steward 1938). Venison was the

preferred meat of the Ute Indians, and where deer were plentiful it

constituted a major part of their diet (Smith 1974:46). Deer hides were

traded by Shoshone groups (Steward 1938:45).

According to Grady (1980), only the mule deer has the optimum size and

population density to be considered as a staple food and hide resource. An

additional consideration of the possible parasitic relationship between deer

and hunting and gathering groups in the area would be the probablity that

these prehistoric groups followed a seasonal migration pattern similar to

the deer, with summers spent exploiting upland resources and winters spent

in canyon bottoms

.

The importance of fish to the Shoshone as a food resource varied with

the locality and species (Steward 1938:4). Squawfish, suckers, and chubs

(Table 5) were all exploited by various groups and may have even provided an

important winter food resource. Fish were caught and eaten by all Northern

Utes, but only groups living near Utah Lake had enough fish to dry and store

(Smith 1974:49). The Dominguez-Escalante expedition purchased dried fish

from the "Yutas" during their trip through northern Utah, near Utah Lake

(Chavez 1976).

A great quantity of "finely divided dark brown material" was recovered

from a cist pit at Castle Park that was analyzed as adult grasshoppers

(Burgh and Scoggin 1948) . Grasshoppers and Morman crickets were sometimes

of great importance to Basin-Plateau aborginal groups (Steward 1938). Jones

(1948) found J. W. Powell's account of the use of grasshoppers by the Ute

Indians an excellent explanation of the insect cache:

63

During the autumn, grasshoppers are very abundant. When cold weathersets in, these insects are numbed, and can be gathered by the bushel.At such time, they [the Utes] dig a hole in the sand, heat stones in afire near by, put some in the bottom of the hole, put on a layer of

grasshoppers, then a layer of hot stones and continue this until theyput bushels on to roast. They are left until cool, when they are takenout, thoroughly dried and ground into meal. Grasshopper gruel, orgrasshopper cake is a great treat.

64

III.

INVESTIGATION AND RESEARCH BACKGROUND

Evaluation of the Data Base Methodology

A thorough compilation of the known historical and prehistoric site

record data and the identification and evaluation of previous investigations

was undertaken in an effort to summarize the existing cultural resource

information for the LSRA. The site record compilation involved collecting

information about both prehistoric and historical sites within the resource

area from records maintained by the BLM, the Colorado Preservation Office,

the Forest Service, the University of Colorado, Colorado State University,

and many private cultural resource management offices.

During the initial "gathering" stage of the project, it became apparent

that record compilation of this scale would be more efficiently accomplished

by developing a computerized data base system. The prototype proposed by

the Colorado Preservation Office (CPO) was in the design stage and had not

been implemented. Without sufficent time to await the state system, the

LSRA proceeded in the development of a local system, using BLM's data

management system REX. An important consideration of the system was that it

remain highly flexible so that variables could be altered or added without

requiring major program changes. A second consideration in the system

design involved structuring the data to ensure compatibility with

commercially available statistical program packages such as Statistical

Package for Social Sciences. A final consideration was the desire to

include variables that coincided with the CPO system for efficient data base

65

comparison. The resultant data base can be periodically checked and

compared to the CPO system for update and corrective purposes.

Numerous problems were encountered. Early site record forms and maps

were often found to be inaccurate, poorly recorded (and even lacking

altogether), making complete compilation of the data nearly impossible.

Inadequate control in assigning site numbers in the past led to many double

or even triple site numbers. For several years the CPO assigned numbers

according to the Smithsonian Trinominal designations, while the BLM assigned

a second set of "in-house" numbers. Reports and publications dealing with

these sites make no mention of the parallel systems and hence it is often

difficult to determine what site is actually being discussed. The

importance of maintaining one site numbering system cannot be over-

emphasized- -site numbers are often the only way to reference a particular

site, unless a name has been given to it.

A primary goal in examining the site records was to obtain, in

manageable form, as much comparable site attribute data for use as a

resource data base for future work as possible, and as a way to identify

obvious gaps in the data that would allow an estimation of the reliability

of present data. The compilation, in this context, would specifically

identify areas of the region requiring work, and also previous

investigations that may be unreliable and should be redone. Because of the

reconnaissance nature of much of the available data, the information dealing

with cultural/temporal position of sites and their distribution, density,

and environmental placement is of particular importance.

The site records for Moffat, Rio Blanco, and Routt counties were

examined, and a predetermined array of information on each site was

66

collected. Items of data collected included: site number, legal location,

cultural features, artifacts, cultural affiliation, topographic position,

vegetation, elevation, physiographic region, photo information and

collection strategy, recorded date of record, field and official evaluation,

project name, bibliographic reference, and more.

A major problem was that much of this site information had not been

recorded for many of these sites, and there was no cross reference system

for updating the information whenever the site(s) were destroyed, monitored,

or excavated, etc. To deal with this lack of pertinent information, much

effort beyond a simple inventory of records was required. Environmental

information was not recorded for many sites; and in order to complete the

record, the precise location and plotting of each site on USGS topographic

maps was necessary. With the location firmly established, geographical and

environmental information could be inferred from map and aerial photo

position.

Reference to the reports and publications was also required, in an

effort to glean site descriptive data and evaluation. Frequently, site

cultural/temporal affiliation data was only contained in these reports and

not found on the site form. Results of testing program investigations were

encoded and entered into the data bank to cross reference further work at

the site and provide a "case-history" for the site by including type of work

conducted, investigator, bibliographic reference, results, and project

name. An annotated bibliography was compiled to further cross-reference

each site to all known published reports that referenced the site. This

alone required considerable effort, with over 2,300 entries. Tracking down

reports and site forms from various cultural resource management firms,

67

governmental agencies, and academic institutions was time consuming; but it

identified some problems that existed with report filing and circulation at

both the state and BLM levels, which had added to the lack of incomplete

nature of information and to the difficulty in conducting literature

searches in these offices.

Negative survey data has also been included in the data base. Project

name, project size, legal location, and results have been entered into the

data base in an effort to obtain a complete picture of the resource base

from the standpoint of where sites have not occurred. This information,

complimented with positive site project information, can also be used to

track the nature of energy development and to locate the focus of this

development. Future block surveys can be designed in these areas with this

in mind.

Previous Archaeological Work in the Project Area

Virtually no archaeological investigations were conducted in the LSRA

during the late 19th and early 20th centuries when the discovery of cliff

dwellings at Mesa Verde in southwestern Colorado drew explorers,

professional archaeologists, and sightseers to the four-corners area. The

lack of interest is perhaps, in part, a result of the lack of impressive

structures, ceramics, and burials in the LSRA, making the area appear to

have little to offer. As a result, no professional archaeological

investigations were conducted before 1922, and then relatively few until the

late 1940s, when archaeological interest was directed toward the Fremont

occupations in Utah. Following the enactment and enforcement of various

68

historical preservation laws in the 1960s, increased archaeological

investigations have been conducted in response to the considerable

development of energy resources in the LSRA.

The following discussion is divided into two parts: the first will

trace early works and those projects conducted solely as scholarly research;

the second part deals with cultural resource management projects conducted

wholly or partially in response to pertinent historical preservation laws.

Exploration and Definition

W.C. McKern conducted the first formal investigation in the LSRA in

1922. This study of rock art was sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution

and involved sites located throughout western Colorado. The manuscript was

lost for 55 years, but it was recovered and published by the BLM in 1978.

McKern (1978) intensively analyzed several petroglyph panels located along

the Sandrocks, immediately north and just outside the town of Craig,

Colorado. He surmised that the styles of rock art located there did not

correlate with known Fremont petroglyphs in the area, but had a general

similarity to the historic period Ute petroglyphs. Presently, McKern'

s

evaluation of the Craig area petroglyphs have no counterpart in modern

literature.

Summer expeditions were conducted from 1939 to 1941 on the western slope

by Betty H. and Harold A. Huscher for the Colorado Museum of Natural

History. The Huschers, in an effort to define Athabaskan migration routes,

located, recorded, and tested sites containing stone structures in "spot

surveys" rather than by thorough reconnaissance efforts. Numerous stone

69

structures were described by the Huschers (1939), including seven circular

and oval stone rings and one large structure just above the Thornburgh

Battle Ground along Milk Creek in Moffat County (5MF495). Detailed

locational information for the site was destroyed in 1959 by a fire at the

Denver Museum of Natural History, and the site has not been relocated. The

Huschers (1943) attribute these enigmatic stone structures to the

Athabaskans and labeled them as "hogans." Archaeologists today disagree

with their identification and believe the remains may be representative of a

Fremont variant (Gleichman, et al. 1982:442).

Archaeological interest in the Fremont, beginning in the late 1940s and

early 1950s, centered on much investigation by the University of Colorado

and University of Utah in Dinosaur National Monument. Research by Burgh and

Scoggin (1948) and Gunnerson (1957), among others, led to initial

definitions of Fremont Culture. The early 1960s and 1970s brought a flurry

of surveys and excavation at the monument (Breternitz 1970a, and Leach

1970) . These investigations further refined the nature of Fremont

occupation in the area, as well as revealing more questions in relation to

Fremont trait lists, interregional variation and origin, development, and

"demise."

A 3-year archaeological project sponsored by the University of Colorado

and the National Park Service was undertaken in Dinosaur National Monument

in an effort to survey and compile an archaeological base map for the

monument. Four hundred thirteen sites were located, most of which were

affiliated with the Desert Culture; 16 were definitely classified as Fremont

and a few were identified as Ute (Breternitz 1965). Excavation of 24 sites

70

followed, and the results were published in several reports (Breternitz

1970a; Leach 1966, 1970). Eight Fremont sites were excavated. They

provided the foundation for the designation Cub Creek Phase for the Uinta

Fremont. These reports provided important information for the

interpretation of the area's prehistory, but unfortunately a majority of

this material was undated. Deluge Shelter, located in Jones Hole, was an

exception. It is a deep, stratified cave site, with Fremont and Archaic

levels, with an early date of ca. 1850 B.C. (Leach 1970). This is one of

the most important sites excavated near the LSRA, because it provides

artifactual and chronological information pertinent to Little Snake and

surrounding areas. Fifteen separate occupation levels were revealed,

representing a time span from 5000 B.C. to A.D. 1850.

During a paleontological study of the Sand Wash Basin, 1974 to 1975,

numerous archaeological sites were noted; and the following year an

archaeological survey of a portion of the area was conducted by the

University of Colorado. The results of the survey were reported in an M.A.

thesis by Richard Stucky (1974). A total of 23 archaeological sites and 19

isolated finds were found within the survey area during the project. In

addition, three sites were tested. The evidence suggests a discontinuous

occupation of the basin from ca. 6550 B.C. to recent times, composed of

eight separate occupation periods. The Early Prehistoric Period and Early

Altithermal occupations are thought to be associated with the Northwestern

Plains, followed by three Early Middle Prehistoric Period occupations,

associated with the Great Basin Desert Culture, another with the Great

Plains Duncan- McKean Technocomplex, and the last restricted to the

northwestern Colorado region. One Late Middle Prehistoric and one Late

71

Prehistoric Period occupation are suggested, which may be associated with

either the Great Basin or Great Plains cultural areas, or both. The last

period of occupation, Late Prehistoric/Historic, may be associated with the

historical Shoshone groups.

The adaptational structure of the prehistoric peoples during all eight

occupations was quite similar and determined in part by the basic resources

of the basin—locally available toolstone and abundant game animals. This

adaptational structure was reflected in the recovered cultural material,

where a major emphasis on tool manufacture, hunting, and processing of big

game animals was evident; a lesser dependence on seed plants was found.

These occupants were also nomadic and perhaps shifted their adaptational

structure when not living in the basin to one dependent on riverine

ecosystems.

Cultural Resource Management Reports

For the past decade, the archaeological investigation in the area has

been dominated by cultural resource management in response to numerous laws

that are aimed at locating and preserving significant historical and

prehistoric sites threatened by energy exploration and development.

Inventory efforts are confined to those energy development areas such as

coal lease tracts, reservoir projects, and well pads, as opposed to

research -oriented inventories. Appendix A is a brief tabulated summary of

the major cultural resource management projects according to type

(reservoir, coal, energy corridor) conducted in the LSRA. Tested and

excavated sites are listed in Table 6.

72

TABLE 6

TESTED AND EXCAVATED SITES IN LSRA

Site Number Tov/nship Range Tested Excavated

5MF1977 12N 97W X

5MF1522 ION 100W X

5MF1521 ION 100W X

5MF958 UN 100W X X

5MF948 5N 90W X

5MF947 6N 91

W

X

5MF946 6N 91

W

X

5MF660 12N 99W X

5MF647 ION 99W X

5MF646 ION 99W X

5MF645 ION 99W X

5MF644 ION 99W X

5MF643 ION 99W X

5MF642 ION 99W X

5MF641 ION 99W X

5MF636 ION 99W X

5MF635 ION 99W X

5MF633 ION 99W X

5MF632 ION 99W X

5MF631 ION 99W X

5MF630 ION 99W X

5MF629 ION 99W X

5MF628 ION 99W X

5MF627 ION 99W X

5MF626 ION 99W X

5MF625 ION 99W X

5MF605 ION 103W X

5MF476 7N 93W X

5MF309 6N 97W X

5RT142 5N 87W X X

5RT1 39 5N 87W X X

5RB11 6N 84W X

5RB10 6N 84W X

73

Summary of Current Research Directions

Essentially, all current archaeological work in the area is in some way

related to cultural resource management. Most of the data being generated

consists of information on the distribution and number of sites derived from

cultural resource management inventories, and few studies have attempted to

characterize patterns of site distribution.

Most of these inventories have been conducted to meet legal and

permitting requirements associated with energy development. These efforts,

by nature, are concentrated within areas of intensive energy exploration.

There is an absence of archaeological data from major portions of the

resource area and unequal "sampling" of others. Until this disparity is

eliminated, an accurate overview that truly reflects the cultural dynamics

of the region cannot emerge.

A central theme in the interpretation of survey data is the development

of a cultural chronology for the resource area. Although considerable work

has been done, the chronological control is sketchy because of the lack of

objectively dated sites. Since most of the temporally sensitive cultural

material are recovered as surface finds, there are inherent biases in the

sample available for study- -contextual relationships are just not as secure

in open sites as they are in sealed subsurface deposits.

Moreover, without an areal cultural synthesis based on excavated, dated,

and associated material, comparisons with typologies developed for

surrounding regions are often, and quite necessarily, made. Such

comparisons, unfortunately, are at times used to imply that the dates of

point types in other regions are quite similar to the dates of points in the

resource area, and even imply that the cultural groups are the same.

74

Many archaeologists have recognized that northwestern Colorado

constitutes a portion of a geological corridor between the Great Plains and

the Great Basin (Mulloy 1954; Jennings 1957; Aikens 1966 and others). The

area has been referred to as "the Great Margin," influenced by the Western

Great Plains, Southwest, and Great Basin traditions (C. Jennings 1968).

These diverse influences are evident in the wide range of archaeological

material found in the area. No evidence has been presented that supports

the existence of established trade networks or major population movements

between the Great Basin and Great Plains (Zeimens 1976). Before assumptions

are made regarding Great Plains or Great Basin cultural influence or

occupation, one must realize that many projectile point types have broad

geographical distributions, span many cultural groups, and were manufactured

over long periods of time.

With so few studies addressing cultural/temporal sequences of

occupations, settlement patterns, and subsistence strategies, research

questions of a regional nature that can be investigated in the study area

are numerous. These research problems include the development of a

cultural-historical framework for the Little Snake Resource Area (given the

strategic location of the study area between the Plains and Great Basin

culture areas), reconstruction of the actual subsystems and processes within

the subsistence-settlement systems for different groups, reconstruction of

paleoclimatic conditions, and reconstruction of past lifeways that may be

unique to particular areas within the LSRA.

Because so few sites have been excavated in the area, and of those

excavated none were completely investigated, many prehistoric culture

questions remain unanswered. Stratigraphic excavation techniques have been

75

employed at a few sites, but palynology flotation, sediment analysis, etc.,

have not been attempted. As a result, little is known regarding temporal

spans of occupation; even less is known about aboriginal subsistence, and

nothing is known about the paleoenvironment . Excavations of sites during

the summer of 1984 by Western Wyoming College in Sand Wash and Irish Canyon

and by the Colorado Highway Department, north of Craig, may provide

invaluable information concerning prehistoric activities in the LSRA when

they are published; at present, unfortunately, this information is not

available.

76

IV.

QUALITY OF DATA BASE

Since the first studies began in the Dinosaur National Monument in the

1950s, over 580 reports on the cultural resources of the Little Snake

Resource Area have been written. About 98 percent of the reports were

written after 1970, reflecting work conducted primarily as a result of

actions by various federal agencies. Most of this work, with the exception

of Stucky (1977) and Cole (1983), has been project-clearance oriented. This

has been done at the behest of the federal government and follows resource

energy development such as coal, water, oil and gas, and locatable

minerals. Table 7 summarizes the cultural resource activity in the Little

Snake Resource Area since 1970.

These projects form the foundation of known cultural material and

habitation patterns in the Little Snake Resource Area; but because of their

regional and project-specific nature, they remain unintegrated. Over 1,360

sites have been recorded for the Little Snake Resource Area; 88 percent of

them were recorded by cultural resource managers. Without

energy-development in the resource area, little would be known about

prehistoric occupation in this area, with the exception of the Brown's Park

and Dinosaur areas where academic and research interests were pursued by the

University of Colorado and the Colorado Archaeological Society.

Only a very small percentage (less than 3 percent) of the resource area

has been surveyed; this is concentrated in certain areas destined for

development. These areas include Powder Wash and Hiawatha Camp (oil and

gas); Great Divide (locatable minerals); Williams Forks, Danforth Hills, and

77

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Lay (coal); and Juniper-Cross Mountain (water). Map 2 displays by township

and range.

The extant data is inherently biased toward in energy areas and neglects

the total environmental range in the Little Snake Resource Area; therefore,

our knowledge of prehistoric cultural adaptations in the project area is

incomplete. The piece-meal quality of work requires some integration and

reducing of the regional gaps through the survey and investigation of the

upland regions of Douglas, Cross, and Juniper Mountains; the river canyon

areas of Vermillion Creek, Brown's Park, and the Little Snake; and the Sand

Wash Basin. Surveys in these areas are badly unrepresented, but through

continued investigation, our knowledge of the area will be enhanced.

Knowledge of the area is of upmost importance when considering the

evaluation of site significance. All sites contain information—some may

contribute relatively little new data, and others may contribute significant

amounts of new data that are important to the understanding of past uses.

Each site must be evaluated in light of regional research goals and must be

mitigated in terms of its relative value and significance—the relative

value of the site can only be ascertained if the resources have been fully

identified, defined, and evaluated.

Archaeological investigation has been dominated for the past 15 years by

cultural resource management. Most of the work has involved inventoring

cultural resources in very specific areas. Further investigation of these

resources, in terms of excavation and testing, has been very limited, partly

because of a general federal policy of mitigation of adverse effects by

avoiding cultural resources. Occasional testing has taken place, but only

to gain additional information in order to evaluate the resource in terms of

79

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the National Register of Historical Places (NRHP) or to mitigate adverse

effects from previous damage. Table 8 summarizes the tests, monitors, and

mitigative efforts conducted in the Little Snake Resource Area.

Statistical manipulation of the inventory data has recently been

emphasized to identify site settlement patterns and density. Class II

surveys of the Juniper-Cross (Chase 1981; Arthur and Collins 1981), the

Danforth Hills (Gorden et al. 1982; Piontkowski 1981) and the Kemmerer areas

(Piontkowski 1980) have produced data that are, as yet, tentative and

untested.

Sites or districts that are considered significant, unique, important,

and representative of a time period, culture or tradition may be nominated

for placement on the National Register of Historic Places. Nomination of

this nature helps to assure the protection and preservation of sites from

deterioration and vandalism, as well as making the site more visible to the

general public. No formally recognized (i.e., NRHP) prehistoric sites or

historical districts exist within the Little Snake Resource Area. Nine

historical sites are listed on the National Register (see Table 9 for a

description of these sites) . Only 6 percent of prehistoric sites in the

LSRA have been officially reviewed by BLM and the State Historical

Preservation Officer for potential NRHP eligibility.

Field assessment by site recorders of historical and prehistoric

cultural resources fall into four categories: no evaluation (10 percent),

not eligible to the National Register (51 percent), more data required

before final evaluation (27 percent), and eligible to the National Register

(11 percent) . Table 10 describes those sites considered eligible to the

National Register.

81

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defacement (rock art), agricultural activities, surface altering from

pinyon-juniper clearing and prescribed burning, construction of roads, and

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subjected to some sort of damage.

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V.

PROTECTION OF SITES

The Archaeological Resources Protection Act (ARPA) of 1979 should

provide more strict and meaningful penalties against vandals caught

destroying sites on public lands. To most people, however, collecting

artifacts is thought of as a recreational past time and not an illegal act.

The development of public education programs are needed to make people aware

of the damage they are doing to their American heritage by surface

collecting and excavating sites.

Protection of cultural resources can be accomplished in a variety of

ways, ranging from marking a site to fencing a site's perimeter. In the

Little Snake Resource Area, most sites remain unmarked (76 percent) and are

essentially unprotected. Because of their nature, visibility of most of

these resources is low. Most sites are open-lithic scatters with a few

scattered tools and flakes not likely to be noticed by the general public.

One rock art site in Irish Canyon is a designated landmark and has been

developed into a road stop/picnic area, with a platform for viewing the

site. The site is marked with a plaque and an explanation of the prehistory

of the site.

Table 11 is a list of the repositories containing archaeological

collections recovered from the Little Snake Resource Area. Six hundred

thirty sites have been collected and stored at 15 repositories. Cultural

material from five sites are located in private collections, and the

location of 12 sites collected is unaccountable.

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VI.

NATURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF SITES

As of June 1984, there were 1,337 recorded sites within the boundaries

of the Little Snake Resource Area. Approximately 1,085 (81 percent) sites

are prehistoric, 228 (17 percent) sites are historical, and 21 (less than

2 percent) contain both historical and prehistoric remains. There were also

two paleontological sites recorded. The following discussion focuses on the

identification of the nature and distribution of prehistoric cultural

resources in this area.

For the management and analysis of large numbers of sites and site data,

sites must be classified into types. There have been two basic approaches

to the formulation of site typology within the Little Snake Resource Area-- a

descriptive classification and an interpretive classification, both based on

attributes of the sites. There is no one typology for sites, artifacts or

cultures; and a single site classification strategy is needed to integrate

site file information into a concise and useful body of data.

For the purpose of general description of cultural resources in the

Little Snake Resource Area, the site taxonomy developed by C. Jennings

(Creasman et al. 1977; Creasman and C. Jennings 197 7; C. Jennings and

Spitzer 1976) was used. This system classifies site type, based on both

topographic situation and cultural remains at the site. Site types that

only cover historical and paleontological resources will not be discussed

here. The prehistoric site types—open lithic, open camp, sheltered lithic,

open architectural, sheltered architectural, sheltered camp, quarry, rock

art, and isolated finds—are defined below.

98

Traditional types and more recent modeling typologies (procurement

location, field camp) can easily fit into these descriptive categories,

depending on the research design. Also, all sites can be consistently

classified, whether or not site function is apparent from the surface. The

broader categories such as open camp, open lithic and isolated find have

been subdivided into smaller descriptive subtypes. A disadvantage is that

the classification depends on accurate field observation and recording, in

addition to a reasonable level of site preservation. Regardless of the

chances for misclassif ication, the site typology is generally reliable for

describing the prehistoric cultural resources in the Little Snake Resource

Area.

Site Types

Open Lithic . This type of archaeological site is defined by the

presence of lithic material in an unsheltered location. These sites contain

flakes, cores or blanks, and occasionally finished or broken tools. Such

sites represent extractive tasks where specific raw resources were gathered

and processed for subsequent use elsewhere. There is no evidence of

camping, nor does the cultural material represent the full garnet of domestic

activities. These "tool use" sites may be lithic manufacturing sites, kill

sites, seed gathering areas, hunting locations, or other resource

acquisition locations.

The "extractive task" sites might contain a limited or specialized tool

kit used for processing, depending on the type of resource being collected.

They are usually situated on or near the location of the desired resource.

For example, hunting locations might be situated overlooking a game trail.

99

The open-lithic sites, as defined, range in tools and debitage (flakes) from

a few solitary artifacts, to spatially discrete loci of varied dimensions

and material content, to lithic areas extending hundreds of meters.

The lithic site often presents unique problems of recordation, site

delineation and site interpretation because of a lack of discrete, coherent

concentrations within the site and because of the size of the site. The

task of assigning lithic sites into specific functional or chronological

classes is often difficult because of the lack of diagnostic artifacts

within surface remains

.

Three hundred forty-three sites (26 percent of all sites recorded in the

Little Snake Resource Area) fall into this category. One hundred twenty

sites (35 percent) contained only waste flakes, and one site contained only

chipped stone tools. The 120 sites containing only flakes could not be

subdivided because 103 of these sites lacked flake descriptions. Generally,

these sites contained two or more different tool types and flakes. The

finished tool types most frequently found were scrapers and bifaces. These

artifacts, for the most part, are made of a variety of toolstone types,

which give the appearance of being multi-purpose sites and/or reoccupation

sites. This is one reason why site size may be a poor criterion for

defining limited activity areas—size can be a function of group size,

multiple occupation, or both. More specialized or limited activity sites

exist, but the distribution or nature of these sites awaits studies on site

catchment, location strategy, temporal placement, and function.

100

Open-lithic sites appear to occur in all the described environments,

from valley bottom to mountain peak, within a 3,500-foot elevational range

(5,280 feet to 8,730 feet). Most sites are found on ridges (30 percent),

terraces or benches (24 percent), in draws or on slopes (3 percent). These

intermediary topographic locations could reflect a portion of the seasonal

round occupation pattern or proximity to the exploitable resource. Since

most of the current survey data is confined to these areas, a full overview

and relative sample of all features is not yet available. To date, only

sample portions of the Williams Forks and Danforth Hills have been surveyed

for archaeological sites. No systematic survey has been conducted on

Juniper, Cross, Douglas, Diamond, or Cold Spring mountains. This leaves a

substantial portion of the seasonal "upland" unexplored.

Over half of the sites occur in sagebrush communities. This is not

especially surprising since roughly two-thirds of the resource area is

covered by this vegetative community (Denker 1984). Twenty-three percent of

the sites are within the pinyon-juniper community, and 6 percent are within

the shrub/woodland community. The low number of sites located in the rest

of the communities may reflect an equally low number of surveys in those

areas, or the smaller number of acreage per community in the resource area.

However, the occurrence of open-lithic sites in these smaller communities

points to available resources, perhaps exclusively, for exploitation by

prehistoric groups.

Most of the sites are located in sagebrush communities between 5,600 and

7,500 feet. As the elevation increases, these sagebrush communities become

surrounded by pinyon-juniper or shrub woodland communities. In some areas

there are openings within the stands. The high number of sites located in

101

these areas may represent a collecting station where more than one resource

was exploited. The number of sites occurring declines significantly above

7,500 feet and below 5,600 feet. The average site size drops for only those

2sites above 7,500 feet; site area averages 6,800m for sites below 7,500

2feet and 2,280m for sites above 7,500 feet.

All the major drainages in Moffat and Routt counties show open-lithic

site types, with 6 7 percent occurring along intermittent drainages feeding

the permanent waterways. The next highest site occurrence is along

permanent water courses (28 percent) and at fresh water springs (4

percent) . Elevation above and distance to intermittent or permanent water

share similar relationship.

Most open-lithic sites contain few diagnostic artifacts or other datable

elements. They tend to be located in eroded areas (along terraces and on

ridges), and they often have been previously (and repeatedly) visited by

local collectors. Only 82 (24 percent) of the open-lithic sites contained

diagnostic artifacts, of which only 30 could be associated with cultural

periods or traditions. These artifacts represent occupation from the

Paleo-Indian period to the late Prehistoric Period; therefore, this site

type may represent a similar sort of activity shared by all aboriginal

groups through time. Table 12 presents a list of open-lithic sites

containing diagnostic artifacts and their environmental situation.

Sheltered Lithic . The sheltered-lithic sites are classified in the

same manner as open-lithic sites, except they occur in rock shelters,

overhangs, caves, or talus boulders. These natural shelters were frequently

used for protection from the elements and for the security they provided.

Only two sites, 5MF1208 and 5MF760, which are located in pinyon-juniper

102

TABLE 12

OPEN LITHIC SITES

Period Site Number Veftetation Landform

Paleoindian 5MF1003 Riparian Terrace, Bench5MF969 Sagebrush Arroyo5RT139 Shrub Woodland Ridge

Archaic 5MF1447 Sagebrush5MF1449 Sagebrush5MF468 Sagebrush5MF512 Sagebrush Terrace, Bench5MF712 Pinon-Juniper Ridge5MF890 Sagebrush Ridge

Middle Archaic 5MF1298 Pinon-Juniper Terrace, Bench5MF638 Sagebrush Dune, stabilized

Fremont 5MF1317 Mixed Conifer Ridge5MF869 Pinon-Juniper Ridge

Late Prehistoric 5MF1465 Sagebrush5MF1499 Sagebrush Terrace, Bench5MF1800 Pinon-Juniper Hill, SIope

5MF460 Riparian5MF626 Sagebrush Dune, stabilized5RT148 Sagebrush Terrace, Bench5RT287 Sagebrush Ridge

Protohistoric 5MF1293 Sagebrush Dune, Unknown

Multi-Component 5MF1033 Sagebrush Terrace, Bench5MF1461 Sagebrush5MF1765 Sagebrush Ridge

5MF516 Sagebrush Ridge

5MF628 Sagebrush Dune, stabilized

5MF849 Pinon-Juniper Dune, stabilized

5MF946 Shrub Woodland Terrace, Bench5MF986 Sagebrush Dune, Unknown

10 3

vegetative communities, fall into this category. Cultural materials

associated with these sites are scrapers and flakes.

Open Camp . Sites containing evidence of domestic behavior such as

groundstone tools, hearths, ceramics, or other nonportable cultural material

within an open topographic situation are included in this classification.

Campsites are generally associated with chipped stone tools and flakes,

although there are exceptions. These sites were occupied over a longer

period than the open-lithic site types, and they displayed a wider variety

of activities. This site type would be comparable to sites described as

habitation sites or as base camps.

Activities occurring at these sites included the preparation and

consumption of foodstuffs and the manufacture of tools, and they were

possibly a central gathering place from which hunting and collecting parties

departed. Open camps generally possess a more diverse artifact inventory

than the open-lithic sites and often contain features such as fire hearths

or burnt-rock concentrations.

In contrast to open-lithic sites, the location of an open-camp site

might have depended on more factors than the distribution of a single

resource. Decisions regarding campsite location might have involved

proximity to several diverse resources, such as distance to water and fuel

and degree of slope.

Considering the "open" location attribute for this classification, the

exposure of these sites during winter months would require some kind of

habitation structure. Or, these sites might have been only occupied during

the spring, summer or fall seasons. As Reed and Scott (1982:359) have

observed, wickiup villages, considered habitation sites, often have few

104

surface artifacts; and deterioration of the village may result in

classifying these phenomena as open-lithic sites. In this case, it is quite

possible that some sort of structure may have existed at these sites; but,

because of the lack of visible structural remains, they are classified as

open camps.

According to the above definition, there are approximately 290 sites in

the Little Snake Resource Area that fall into the open-camp classification.

They occur at elevational ranges of 5,380 to 9,690 feet above sea level,

with 68 percent of the sites situated between 5,900 and 6,900 feet. Above

and below this range, the site numbers drop sharply. Sixteen percent of

these sites occur above 6,900 feet, and 12 percent occur below 5,900 feet.

Within the 1,000 foot range, between 5,900 to 6,900 feet, 200 open-camp

site types occur. Two-thirds of these sites occur in sagebrush communities

and one-quarter occur in pinyon-juniper. Only 3 percent are found in the

shrub woodland; and the remaining 14 sites are divided among salt desert

shrubland, riparian, and riparian woodland. The presence of such a high

number of sites within the sagebrush community may be the result of the

large acreage of sagebrush in the Little Snake Area rather than selection

for site location within that community. Overall, the open-camp sites

betwwen 5,900 and 6,900 feet occur in the same vegetative communities and in

similar relative proportions as the open camps with no elevational

constraints. Most of the sites are located along ridges or terrace/benches

and within dunes. They are found throughout the resource area in all major

drainage basins. Most are located along an intermittent drainage, with 5

percent located adjacent to springs. Elevation above water and distance to

the water source are similar to elevation and distances to intermittent and

105

permanent water sources. A greater range exists to water for open-lithic

sites than for open-camp sites. This contrast may signal a resource

procurement strategy difference, a site typology misrepresentation, the use

of potable water artifacts, or a site locational difference in contrast to

surrounding areas.

For descriptive purposes, the open-camp-site types were subdivided into

smaller categories, based on artifact and feature content. Since three

attributes—presence of groundstone, nonstructural features, and

ceramics—are the classifying attributes for open-camp sites, permutations

of the three were used to form the subcategories. Table 13 displays the

number of open-camp-site types by subcategory.

As can be seen in the table, only two sites fulfilled all three

requirements for group entry into the open-camp class. The general lack of

ceramics recorded in the resource area is the reason for the few sites in

this category. Twenty-two percent of the sites contained groundstone with

hearths, 30 percent of the sites contained only groundstone, and 43 percent

of the sites contained only hearths. The latter attribute, presence of

fire, was by far the best classifier. Table 14 delineates the cultural

material content on the sites and the range in diversity apparent in this

site type.

106

Table 13

OPEN CAMP SUBTYPES

Subtype Number of Sites Percentage

Hearths, ceramics and groundstone 2 1

Hearths and groundstone 64 22

Hearths and ceramics 5 2

Groundstone and ceramics 3 1

Hearths 126 43

Ceramics 2 1

Groundstone 87 30Non-structural features, other 3 1

292

Nonstructural features other than hearths or burnt stone were a

depression, bedrock mortars and metates, and middens. The depression

feature is a 3-meter diameter pit found in association with groundstone

along a pinyon-juniper covered saddle above Milk Creek. The site (5MF415)

was recorded by Dr. Joe Lischka of the University of Colorado during an

archaeological survey. No further investigation of the site has occurred

since the time of recording, and no other feature such as this is on record

for the resource area.

The presence of groundstone in bedrock situations has been recorded at

three sites in the Little Snake Resource Area. The bedrock mortars (5RT195)

were found in Routt County by the BLM archaeologists during the Kemmerer

PRLA Class II cultural resource survey. No artifactual material was found

in association with these features. Bedrock metates have been recorded at

two sites along the Green River in Brown's Park. Both sites also contained

rock art panels on the same bedrock that the metates were ground into and

10 7

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were in association with chipped stone artifacts and manos . The provenience

and rock art at these sites suggest that Fremont affiliated groups utilized

and processed riparian resources here, perhaps cultigens grown on the Green

River floodplain.

Open-camp-site types have been affiliated with all cultural periods

represented in the Little Snake Resource Area. Projectile points and

ceramics have been found on 72 open camps representing the Paleo-Indian,

Archaic, Fremont and Late Prehistoric periods. Seventeen sites contain

components from two or more periods, possibly indicating multiple

occupations by different cultural groups, or collection and use of heirloom

artifacts from other sites and subsequent deposition of the artifact at the

site by later groups.

Sheltered Camp . The sheltered camp classification includes the same

characteristics for open-camp sites, except they are located in natural

shelters. Although the resource area is not a canyon land, appropriate

geological formations for rock shelters can be found in the Williams Fork,

on Juniper and Cross mountains, along the Green River and the Lower Yampa,

and in the far northwest in Vermillion and Irish canyons. Despite the

abundance of these areas, only 22 sheltered camps have been recorded,

reflecting the lack of surveys conducted outside of energy-developed areas.

Numerous types of rock shelters occur in the resource area, but a cultural

selectivity toward overhangs is evident—over half of the rock shelters

occur in overhangs (see photographs 6 and 7).

Accessibility; stability of the shelter; and distance to water and

exposure, generally south, appear to be factors in rockshelter utilization

(Gleichman et al. 1982:469). In the Little Snake Resource Area, 77

114

Photograph 6

Irish Canyon Rock Shelter

Photograph 7

Sheltered Camp Diamond Breaks

115

percent of the sheltered camps were located near perennial water sources in

pinyon-juniper and sagebrush communities, and over half of these were

located within 150 meters of water. Sixty percent have southernly aspects.

Table 15 lists the recorded sheltered camps and the cultural attributes

present at each. As can be seen on the table, of the 22 recorded sheltered

camps in the study area, 10 (45 percent) show evidence of fire and 7 have

associated rock art. No diagnostic artifacts such as projectile points or

ceramics have been found at these sites, but the associated rock art panels

at two of the sites suggest Fremont and Late Prehistoric Period occupation.

The protection from the elements provided by these natural shelters

created a favorable camp spot for aboriginal peoples. It also helped

protect and preserve perishable remnants of their occupation. These

conditions provide a high potential for data retrievalof wood, bone,

vegetable, and basketry material. Investigation of them will add to the

understanding of the culture, environment, and chronology of these

prehistoric peoples.

Three sheltered campsites have been excavated in the Little Snake

Resource Area. During the summer of 1978, the Laboratory of Public

Archaeology conducted investigations at 5MF436, located along the Williams

Fork River just south of its confluence with the Yampa, and 5MF435, located

above Milk Creek. Results of this investigation are being compiled. A

second investigation was conducted at the Irish Canyon Rock Shelter (5MF606)

by Western Wyoming College archaeological field school during the summer of

1984. Pollen and soil samples were collected for paleoenvironmental

reconstruction, along with charcoal samples, for chronological control in an

effort to determine the nature and length of occupation at the site. Since

116

TABLE 15

SHELTERED CAMP ATTRIBUTES

Site Number Features Tools Bone Debitage

5RT1 None None Present None5MF1276 Hearth -firepit None Present None5MF1316 Burnt rock concentration Hammers tone Present Present

Chipped stone concentration5MF1753 Hearth-f irepit Chopper,, core None Present

Pictograph Groundstone5MF1760 Hearth- firepit Groundstone None Present5RT2 None None Present None5MF290 Pictograph

Burnt rockNone None None

5RT3 None None Present None5RT345 Petroglyph

PictographNone None None

5MF409 None None Present None5MF436 Pictograph Graver, core None Present5RT5 None None None Present5MF510 Hearth-f irepit None None Present5RT6 Pictograph

PictographNone None None

5MF606 Hearth-f irepitPetroglyph

None Present Present

5MF624 Hearth-f irepit None None Present5MF657 Hearth-f irepit None Present None5MF692 Petroglyph

FirepitNone None Present

5MF693 Hearth-f irepit None None None5MF694 None Scraper None Present

Groundstone5MF718 Hearth-f irepit Biface Present Present5MF755 Burnt rock concentration Core None Present

117

the site is located along a major transportation canyon corridor and

overlooks a Pleistocene lakebed, information retrieved will help establish

the local chronology of the Little Snake Resource Area.

Open Architectural . Prehistoric architectural sites such as masonry

structures, brush wickiups, pit structures, game drives, hunting blinds,

cairns, and storage cists are considered open- architectural sites. Sixteen

sites with structures have been recorded in the study area; all are made of

stone. These sites are rather uncommon (see photographs 8 and 9).

Six types of stone structures can be distinguished—stone circles,

rectangular structures, hunting blinds, pits, storage features, and cairns.

Stone circles consist of a circular stone enclosure, a single coarse high,

ranging in size from 3 to 6 meters in diameter. These structures are often

referred to as "tipi rings." There is considerable controversy concerning

their function. The prevailing hypothesis is that they are remains of stone

weights used to hold down the flaps on a tipi or wickiup structure (Malouf

1961). Ethnographically, the Cheyenne were observed to use stones to hold

down tipi edges in the winter when the ground was too frozen to use stakes

(Grinnell 1962) . If they are all that remains after the removal or

disintegration of residential structures, other evidence or occupation such

as hearths, ceramics, groundstone, or diverse tool kit should be present.

A second hypothesis is that stone structures represent part of a

ceremonial activity such as a vision quest. Extensive lithic scatters or

habitation activities would not be expected at such sites (Frison 1978).

In the Little Snake Resource Area, five stone-circle sites have been

recorded. All are located on ridge tops and in sagebrush communities, and

all contained chipped stone artifacts. Two are associated with hearths and

118

Photograph 8

Stone Circles

Photograph 9

Wickiups

119

two with groundstone. The occurrence of associated artifactural material

indicates that some of the structures may have been residential in nature.

Clustering of open-architectural types may also provide a clue to the

builders and inhabitants of these structures. Three of these sites

contained over 10 structures. Historical accounts by early explorers and

fur traders in the Brown's Park area mention winter encampments composed

of willow pole lodges built in a circular fashion that were occupied by

several thousand Indians (Dale 1918) . Visitors to Fort Davy Crockett

mentioned that the area was a regular wintering ground for the Snake

Tribe (Farnham 1843). Multiple stone circles may be the remains of

winter campgrounds or areas revisited year after year.

Large numbers of stone circles appeared throughout the Northwestern

Plains during the Middle and Late Plains Archaic and Late Prehistoric

periods (Frison 1978). Only one stone-circle site (5MF845) in the LSRA

contained a diagnostic artifact. A small corner-notched projectile point

affiliated with the Late Prehistoric Period sometime post A.D. 1150 was

located in Brown's Park on a terrace overlooking the Green River.

The second type of stone structure is dry-laid, coursed, rectangular,

or curvilinear structures. The structures were built several courses

high, but most have collapsed. Four sites, containing 16 individual

structures, are classified in this type. The Huschers (1939) reported

the first group of this type on a high cuesta north of the Thornburgh

Battle Ground, attributing their presence to the Athabascan migration and

referring to them as "hogans." They described the structures as "walled

with rounded lava boulders laid up without mortar, some walls still

standing to the heights of three feet" (Huscher and Huscher 1943:16). A

120

series of seven circular and oval ruins were described, along with a

rectangular multiple-room structure just north of the "hogan"

concentration. This structure was also built of lava boulders that were

piled to knee height and measured 50 feet by 20 feet, with cross

partitions. No cultural material was found associated with the site

(5MF495).

Two other sites of this type, 5MF612 and 5MF647, without cultural

material were found. Site 5MF612 is located on a ridgetop overlooking Irish

Canyon and is described as a two- room stone-walled site with walls 12 inches

high that measure 30 by 60 feet. The locational situation and singular

nature of this site suggests a resemblance to Fremont Promontory structures

described by Grady (1984), Creasman (1981) and others. Site 5MF647, on the

other hand, is located along the bottom of a canyon near the Vermillion

Bluffs. It is a square to rectangular structure measuring 1.9 meters by 3.0

meters. The time period and function of these structures is unknown.

The last site in this subtype is located on a ridgetop overlooking the

Yampa River and is composed of six semicircular sandstone slab structures

measuring 2.5 to 3 meters in diameter. Cultural material collected at the

site included two projectile points and artifacts associated with habitation

sites- -groundstone, tools, and debitage. The projectile points, a metal

projectile point and a Pinto Basin point, represent two different

chronological periods; therefore, the cultural affiliation of the site

remains in question. The presence of many historical artifacts—porcelain

beads, buttons, a black powder ball— is evidence of occupation during

postcontact times.

121

Two sites located on top of Cedar Mountain comprise the third type of

stone structure. They have been described by the recorder (Hansen 1977)

as possible "eagle pits" or "hunting blinds." The walls of these

structures are made of basalt and measure .5 meter. Benedict (1975)

reported the presence of stone structures at game drive sites that are

circular in configuration, with stone walls from .3 to .6 meter high that

are built around pits .2 to 1.1 meters deep. These hunting blinds were

found in association with other game drive features.

Smith (1974) describes a pit method of capturing eagles used by the

Northern Ute:

A pit was dug, roofed with willows, with a piece of deer meat placed ontop as bait. The hunter, down in the pit, would reach through a holein the brush covering when the eagle alighted to take the bait, pull it

down by the feet and wring its neck.

The true function and affiliation of this subtype awaits further

investigation.

One rock-lined depression feature is the sole representative for the

fourth subtype. The structure was not measured when recorded. It is

located on a pinyon-juniper covered ridgetop overlooking Elk Springs and is

associated with numerous tools, flakes, and charcoal. No diagnostic

artifacts were recovered and site function remains unknown. This is the

only "pit" structure on record for the resource area.

The fifth type of stone structure is small rectangular sandstone

structures referred to as storage cists or bins. Two sites in the resource

area, 5MF841 and 5MF653, contain these features. 5MF841 consists of four

upright sandstone slabs forming a cist located along the floodplain of the

12 2

Green River and adjacent to a series of bedrock metates and mortars. The

feature measures approximately 30 by 14 by 35 centimeters. Associated

cultural material included groundstone and chipped stone tools, but no

diagnostic artifacts. The open location of the feature and associated

material suggest open-camp-type activities, with a possibility of a buried

habitation structure. The second site, 5MF653, contains two storage bins

partially buried in a stabilized dune. One burned rock was found in

association with the features. The features were made of uncoarsed

sandstone slabs measuring approximately 50 by 50 by 25 centimeters.

The sixth type of stone structure is the cairn. These structures may

be prehistoric or may have been built by historical ranchers, sheepherders

or possibly even early surveyors. A cairn, 5MF604, which is located near a

perennial spring on a mountain peak, may have served as a landmark.

The lack of recorded wickiup structures for the Little Snake Resource

Area is surprising, based on the ethnographic groups known to have

frequented the area. Wickiups are brush shelters, conical in shape, with an

internal pole superstructure over which boughs, bark, and perhaps hides were

secured. Some are free standing, and others incorporate a living tree for

support. Interior fire hearths and juniper bark bedding are common.

Numerous ethnographic and historical accounts of Utes and other Great Basin

aborigines describe this type of structure (Huscher and Huscher 1939:28).

Local informants have indicated that wickiup type structures have been found

along the west side of Cross Mountain, in Sheephead Basin and above Brown's

Park on Cold Spring and Diamond mountains (Levitt, 1984). All of these

sites occur in dense pinyon-juniper areas, which may have provided the

protection needed for their survival. Appraisal of these sites is

123

impossible without adequate location and recording, however, and emphasis

should be made on the discovery and formal recording of this site type to

fill in a rather large gap in the data base.

Sheltered Architectural . This type is the same as open-architectural

sites, except they are situated in naturally sheltered locations (see

photograph 10). There are five sites that fit into this classification,

three of which are dry-laid walls in rock shelters. Like the other types of

stone structures, the function of these walls is uncertain, but three occur

in an area that may be classified as habitation sites. The other two sites

contain storage cists. Only one, 5MF1751, has been adequately recorded. It

consists of adobe, sandstone slab and stick construction, with a groundstone

metate serving as a lid. Corn cob impressions were visible in the support

adobe. An additional three or four cists in various states of disrepair are

within the shelter. Local informants and this author have seen additional

cists, both freestanding and incorporating bedrock, throughout the area.

What was stored in these compartments and by whom awaits future

investigation, but holds much promise for excellent information concerning

the subsistence and settlement patterns of aboriginal groups in the Little

Snake Resource Area.

Rock Art . Sites in this type contain pecked petroglyphs and painted

pictograph images on rock faces. This type is not in association with a

larger complex of cultural material such as campsites.

The rock art in northwestern Colorado was first studied in the 1920s by

McKern for the Smithsonian Institute. McKern noted the rock art on the Sand

Rocks north of Craig and associated their occurrence with Mesa Verde and

Shoshonean affiliations. Since McKern' s study, public and professional

124

Photograph 10Sheltered Architectural Diamond Breaks

interest in rock art in Colorado and Utah has led to a number of

publications (Schaafsma 1963, 1971, 1975; Turner 1963; Buckles 1971; Burton

1971; Grant 1967), despite the lack of substantive knowledge regarding the

phenomena and the difficulty in applying current archaeological techniques

to its investigation.

A total of 33 sites containing rock art, including some panels, have

been located in the Little Snake Resource Area. Many are complex panels and

others are solitary figures. Eight sites are associated with

habitation-type shelters. Both pictographs and petroglyphs exist, sometimes

occurring together and often superimposed.

The Denver Chapter of the Colorado Archaeological Society (CAS) has

taken an active role in recording the rock art along Brown's Park, Irish

Canyon, and Vermillion creeks. Through their efforts, 14 rock art sites

125

were recorded, studied, and interpreted. The Irish Canyon petroglyphs

recorded by CAS are now protected and developed for public education and

recreation. The rest of the rock art sites (19 sites) were discovered and

recorded during archaeological projects supported by energy development in

the resource area.

Recording techniques vary from brief notes of observations and an

occasional photograph or sketch to detailed description, scale maps, and

extensive photography. Unfortunately, most sites are only minimally

recorded, precluding any detailed or meaningful analysis of the motifs,

manufacture techniques, distribution, affiliation, etc.

Assigning a particular rock art style to a specific chronological

period or cultural group can sometimes be done, but only with broad temporal

categories. Relative dating through the study of patination, lichen growth,

superposition of elements, erosion, or mechanical and chemical weathering

can provide empirical evidence on temporal relations, but can be misleading

since the processes of weathering, patination formation, and lichen growth

are not well understood and often vary by location and through time.

Absolute dating of the rock art may be accomplished through the presence of

datable archaeological deposits in association with the rock art. This

method involves numerous assumptions, however, especially if the deposit is

surficial or contains multiple components, or when the panel exhibits

different styles.

Cultural affiliation of the rock art has also been determined by the

presence of diagnostic subject matter, such as the bow and arrow, the

atlatl, the horse, or the presence of distinctive iconography. During the

summer of 1983, Sally Cole conducted an intensive documentation of the rock

126

art of Irish and Vermillion canyons. Through relative dating of the rock

art styles present, Cole (1983) associated the earliest rock art forms with

Late Archaic populations in the Great Basin, as represented in the Great

Basin Abstract and Representational styles. The Fremont-type rock art

present was found to represent two styles- the Classic Vernal and Northern

San Rafael style—suggesting a possibility of two chronological periods, as

represented by the presence of bow and arrow motifs in the San Rafael style

and the lack of such in the Vernal, possibly earlier, style. Cole offers an

alternative theory concerning the possibility that the two styles are from

the same time frame but represent two different functions. The Northern San

Rafael style appears to represent pictures of everyday life such as hunting

scenes, while the Vernal style is more stylistic and representative of

perhaps the organized ceremonial aspect of Fremont lifeways. Cultural

contacts with the Great Basin, the Southwest, Colorado Plateau, and the

Northern San Rafael are evident, with a general lack of Plains-related

motifs.

The Cole analysis was concentrated in the northwestern portion of the

resource area and involved four sites, 5MF353, 492, 756, and 758. Her

contributions to the chronology of the area has provided insight into the

potential interrelationships between different cultural groups in the area

and has offered suggestions regarding future investigations on cultural

affiliations of prehistoric occupants of the resource area (see photographs

11 through 14). There remains, however, 30 recorded and unstudied sites in

the resource area. Future rock art studies on the level of the Cole study

are needed to support or refute the Cole hypotheses and to shed additional

light on the aboriginal artists- -who they were, when they were here, and why

were the panels made.

127

Photograph 11Rock art, Vermillion Creek

Photograph 12

Rock art, Vermillion Creek

128

Photograph 13

Rock Art, Irish Canyon

Photograph 14

Rock Art, Irish Canyon

129

Table 16 describes the rock art sites present in the resource area.

The rock art styles vary considerably in size, configuration, and

arrangement of the motifs. A number of sites contain a variety of

anthropomorphs , painted and pecked, riding horses, carrying shields, and

wearing elaborate headdresses with horns. Others are grouped (dancers?),

large and small, and others are isolated. One panel, 5RT118, contains three

red painted anthropomorphs 4 feet tall with round heads, square shoulders,

and continuous lines forming the bodies. Anthropomorphs at 5MF465 are

compared to the Barrier Canyon Style "carrot men" style but are painted in

only black pigment.

Zoomorphic figures prevail throughout the rock art panels. Nearly

every large indigenous mammal is represented in naturalized or stylized

zoomorphs. Most commonly depicted are deer, mountain sheep, antelope,

horse, and bison. A blue painted and incised mammoth/bison has been

described on a panel south of the town of Hayden. Snakes and bird motifs

are also common.

Abstract motifs composed of curvilinear and rectilinear elements are

present at many sites. Meandering lines, straight lines, spirals,

concentric circles, dots, rows of lines, and other miscellaneous patterns

are the most common. "Awl" grooves are also found at several sites.

Twenty-three rock art sites are located near the confluences of side

canyons, tributaries, and major drainage corridors. Three major river

corridors, the Yampa, Green, and Williams Fork, as well as Vermillion Creek

and Irish Canyon, form natural transportation corridors and are sprinkled

with rock art sites. Whether the rock art found in these areas represent

messages, trail markers, or symbolic ceremony or magic remains is not

130

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known. Site 5MF289 is a pictograph and petroglyph panel located along a

sandstone ridge adjacent to the Williams Fork River. The main themes of the

panel are riders with shields, headdresses, and bows/arrows and are

representative of post-Hispanic contact. Omer Stewart has hypothesized that

the rock art marks the boundary between Ute and Shoshone occupation

(Breternitz 1971). The four sites not located along obvious access

corridors and more inaccessible areas may have been used for different

functions. The isolation of these sites suggest a possible religious

purpose.

The known rock-art sites occur primarily in overhangs, sandstone

cliffs, and isolated boulders, and all but three have a southernly aspect.

Rock art panels associated with habitation attributes, such as 5MF290, 345,

and 692, offer an excellent opportunity to investigate the nature and

affiliation of these phenomena through the dating of archaeological deposits

and cultural materials.

Quarry Sites . Areas where lithic raw material was extracted or mined

for stone tool manufacture are classified as quarries. Despite the numerous

exposed geologic strata containing potential sources for excellent toolstone

and the frequent references to "tiger chert found in the Sand Wash Basin" in

archaeological literature, only four quarry sites have been recorded for the

resource area, none of which mention "tiger chert" as the quarried raw

material, white chert was noted as occurring "everywhere" by Grand River

Institute (1980) during the Oak Creek Survey in Routt County. All recorded

quarries produced various types of crytocrystalline quartzites; no obsidian

sources are known within the LSRA.

136

Stucky (1974) describes three geologic formations within the Sand Wash

Basin that produced the raw lithic material utilized by prehistoric

populations to make chipped stone tools. The Bridger Formation contains

three types of lithic material: a green sedimentary block quartzite,

rounded quartzite and jasper cobbles, and light tan to dark brown surface

flint that occurs in nodular form (commonly called tiger chert). The Green

River Formation produces silicified oolitic limestone that can be found as a

surface deposit. The third formation described was the Wasatch where pink

to orange jasper was found in angular cobble form. More than 88 percent of

chipped stone tools recovered during the Stucky survey were made from these

lithic sources.

Three of the recorded quarry sites, 5MF675, 5MF479, and 5MF899, are

located in the Wasatch and Bridger formations and are described as terraces

and ridges out of which chalcedony and chert nodules were eroding. 5MF6 75

and 5MF899 are located along the southern portion of the Sand Wash Basin and

at elevations within 5 meters of one another, 1,798 meters and 1,804

meters. 5MF479 is located north of the Basin overlooking Shell Creek and

within the Wasatch Formation at an elevation of 2,085 meters. A small

2quarry site (150 m ), 5MF1205 , containing chert nodules, was located on

the slope of Cross Mountain within the Madison Limestone. No pits or other

activities associated with "mining" the resource were observed.

Three open-camp sites are located on or near quarry sources, and

apparently the procurement of the raw lithic material was one of the

activities conducted at the sites. The four quarry sites are located in

four different topographic areas and formations. Iron Mountain is the

location of an open-camp site where basalt, which was acquired from an

137

outcrop on the mountain, was reduced. Chert and quartzite flakes were also

present at the site but not acquired on the mountain. Tiger chert in

nodular form from an erosional terrace in Sand Wash was collected at a dune

open camp, 5MF1628. In the area of Savory Pot Hook, quartzite cobbles from

a Wasatch Formation terrace were collected and used at 5MF522.

Much of the use of native toolstone in the LSRA appears to be more

fortuitous rather than intentional mining and reduction found at quarries

such as the famous "Spanish Diggings" near Lusk, Wyoming. This may be a

reflection of the quality of toolstone found in the surface terrace

deposits, or just another example of an incomplete data base. The presence

of algael, oolithic, pumpkin, and tiger chert at archaeological sites

further south and west suggest some sort of trade network or even seasonal

round where collection of raw material was part of the resource strategy.

The procurement of raw toolstone materials was more than the mere gathering

of surface materials -it required serious, planned systematic efforts and

the expenditure of energy and time. The importance of this aspect of the

prehistoric cultural system cannot be underestimated. The economy of these

peoples often depended on the quality and availability of raw materials for

chipped stone tools. Further systematic studies of prehistoric seasonal

round should include this integral activity.

An exception to the fortuitous use strategy is the quarry open-camp

site recorded by Gardner (1981). The site is located in the cherty

limestones of the Morgan Formation. Nodular and plate cherts were "mined,"

collected and utilized. The site is extensive, and no site boundaries have

been discerned yet. Diagnostic artifacts recovered suggest prehistoric

populations, from Paleo-Indian Clovis times to Late Prehistoric times,

travelled to the quarry to collect raw toolstone material.

138

To determine the difference between the localities in terms of favored

toolstone use, collections could be made from various formations known to

have been used and, through petrographic analysis, evaluation of the quality

of the toolstone could be made. This information would provide significant

data as to trade networks and cultural boundaries, as well as some insight

into a necessary portion of the seasonal round raw-lithic-material

procurement.

Isolated Finds . This category has been used as a catchall since the

advent of archaeological surveys conducted for cultural resource

management. Originally conceived as a description for a solitary artifact,

it has grown to be interpreted in various ways from "a single object of

human origin located more than 100m from any other contemporaneous artifact"

(Creasman 1979: 111-3) to its use for any phenomena that does not fit the

description of an archaeological site. This last description includes

historical trash, isolated fire hearths, localities, and "4 or fewer

artifacts."

Overall, the general use of the category implies a description of some

sort of limited short-term activity area. Studies and observations of the

physical remains left by contemporary hunter and gatherer groups, such as

the !Kung Bushmen, have noted that at some sites only the remains of a few

flakes, scrapers and an occasional fire hearth remain (Yellen 1976). Such

sites would probably either be visible or become candidates for "isolated

finds" after just a few years. Arrows or ataltl points lost by aboriginal

hunters may also be later found and classified as isolated finds. Once

described in this category, unfortunately, the artifacts are not further

studied unless they are projectile points. Therefore, it is possible that a

139

rather large body of data is not being synthesized into the formation of

theories regarding subsistence strategies or locational patterns.

Regardless of the problems in determining the function of isolated

finds, the majority are probably limited activity sites, and most could be

described as open lithic. Isolated finds occur throughout the resource area

at all elevations, within all vegetative types, and in all sorts of

topographic situations. A total of 380 sites in the resource area have been

classified as isolated finds. Thirty-nine projectile points have been found

in isolated circumstances. Table 17 describes the range of cultural remains

recorded in this category. Since many of these sites could represent

systematic behavior such as a limited activity and, therefore, consequently

a neglected aspect in the subsistence and settlement pattern of the

aboriginal populations in the resource area, treatment and definition of

this phenomena should be standarized in the resource area. Perhaps a return

to describing solitary artifacts as isolated finds and all else as sites

under the described categories along with further consideration of what

aspect of prehistoric life the phenomena represents would be advisable.

Multiple-Site Type . The sites in this category contain cultural

material from both historical and prehistoric periods. Twenty-one sites

fall into this type. One -half of the prehistoric types would be classified

as open camps. Nine of these prehistoric sites also contain historical

architecture in the form of homesteads, dugouts, and corrals. Apparently,

historic and prehistoric peoples at times considered similar site location

attributes when selecting a "campsite." Elevation above a water source was

usually less than 24 meters, and distance to the source was less than 150

140

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CJ CU CD CD 1) <D CDc c tr c c c co o o o o o o

(U O) d) O) Ol <u <uc c c c c c co o o o o o o

meters in 70 percent of the sites. Terrace and ridge locations were favored

by both peoples. Table 18 further describes this site type.

A basic framework to descriptively classify sites in the Little Snake

Resource Area, based on previous work conducted in Northwest Colorado by the

Laboratory of Public Archaeology (LOPA) and directed by Dr. Calvin Jennings

at Colorado State University, was used. Table 19 summarizes the site

classifications and the percentage of sites per category. Review of the

table reveals that three of the classifications (open-lithic, open-camp,

isolated-find) are larger than the others. Based on previous assumptions

for general site function, there should have been more open-lithic sites

(limited activity) than open-camp sites (campsites). Isolated finds could

be defined as limiated activity sites, however, and by combining the

isolated finds and open lithic sites classifications a more representative

figure is presented in relation to the number of open-camp sites.

Assigning a function for this site typology is actually a bit

premature; little environmental difference can be observed between

open-lithic and open-camp sites on this general level. Subdividing the

resource area into smaller environmentally similar units and then evaluating

environmental differences between site types would be practical.

A far greater range of subtypes also exists within these site types in the

resource area than the automated data base has produced. Amateur

archaeologists and collectors in the area should be consulted on the

location of wickiups, storage cists and room blocks, and their existence

recorded and described in an effort to fill in the data gaps.

143

TABLE 18

MULTIPLE SITE TYPE DESCRIPTION

Site Number Features Projectile Points Tools

5MF1004 Homestead, dugout None Flakes5MF1011 Homestead,

Historic refuseDesert si de-notched Biface

Core5MF1197 Historic refuse None Flakes5MF1216 Hearth-firepit,

Historic foundationUndetermi ned Scraper, chopper,

Groundstone5MF1431 Groundstone concentratori, Archaic Biface, core,

homestead Archaic Groundstone5MF1454 Historic refuse None Biface, scraper, Groundstone5NF1457 Historic refuse Undetermi ned Biface5MF1594 Historic refuse None Flakes5MF269 Homestead,

Historic foundationNone Biface

Groundstone, hammerstone5MF333 Homestead, corral None Biface, groundstone5MF404 Historic refuse, corral None Scraper5MF518 Hearth-firepit,

Historic refuseNone Scraper, core

Groundstone5MF695 Hearth-firepit,

Historic refuseNone Biface

5MF725 Dugout,Historic refuse

Archaic Groundstone

5MF855 Dugout,hearth-firepit

None Groundstone

5MF888 Historic refuse None Biface, groundstone5MF955 Historic refuse None Biface, scraper5MF959 Hearth-firepit,

burnt rockNone Groundstone

5MF991 Historic refuse Late Prehistoric Groundstone5RT1 51 Historic refuse Late Preh istoric Chopper, core, groundstone

144

TABLE 19

SITE TYPE DISTRIBUTION

Number of Sites PercentaRe Per Type

Unknown 1

Open Lithic 347Sheltered Lithic 4

Open Architectural 16

Sheltered Architectural 5

Sheltered Camp 22

Open Camp 295

Quarry 4

Trails-Roads 4

Rock Art 19

Burial (Historic) 5

Historic 227

Isolated Find 385

Multiple 24

Paleontological 3

Total 1,361

.07325.5

.29

1.18

.37

1.6221.7

.29

.29

1.396.38

16.6828.291.763.220

14 5

VII.

CHRONOLOGY AND AFFILIATION

The development of a chronology and regional sequence in the Little Snake

Resource Area is hased on several lines of evidence, including radiocarbon

dating, cross-dating of projectile point types, and the presence of

ceramics. Radiocarbon dating is the primary means of dating and

establishing the chronology of the region. No dendrochronologic samples

have been analyzed for the LSRA.

Relative chronology through cross dating of artifacts and other types of

cultural evidence such as features or structures can also be correlated.

The nonperishable archaeological remains, pottery and projectile points are

sufficiently distinct in their construction and morphology and restricted in

terms of their temporal occurrence and geographical distribution to be used

for archaeological cross-dating of sites in the LSRA.

Maize has been the best diagnostic timemarker of all preserved plant

remains in Northwestern Colorado. On the Colorado Plateau, corn is

generally believed to date after A.D. 1 (Schroedl 1976), although Winter

(1976) reports evidence for corn in late Archaic contexts in the Southwest

before this date. Corn remains have been affiliated with Fremont occupation

in Dinosaur National Monument and the Canyon Pintado Historic District

(Bretemitz 1970a; Creasmann 1981; La Point et al. 1981).

The only evidence, however, for the presence of corn within the LSRA

boundaries outside of Dinosaur National Monument are corn cob impressions

left in the adobe mud walls of a storage cist above Brown's Park.

146

Other cultural phenomena may be used in correlating the prehistoric

sites in the LSRA. Some types of pit features, including hearths, fire

pits, slab and rock lined fire basins, seem to have significant temporal and

possibly geographical dimensions (Wormington and Lister 1956); but no

studies of these site features have been successfully conducted in the

LSRA. Burials and associated artifacts also provide significant temporal

associations, but there are no recorded sites of this nature for the

resource area. Rock art styles have been preliminarily studied by Cole

(1983), but correlation with styles outside her study area are tenuous. For

the most part, cultural features suitable for cross dating and correlation

of sites remain limited.

Projectile Points

Placing prehistoric sites in chronological order depends on the analysis

of projectile point styles. These styles, or types, are used to describe

observable and quantifiable changes in cultural material over time. Frison

et al. (1974) has noted a general decrease in point size from early to late

prehistoric times, reflecting the change from spear to ataltl dart to arrow

point.

As previously mentioned, the LSRA is marginal to two major cultural

areas, the Great Basin/Plateau/Desert Archaic and the Northwestern Plains

cultures. In order to classify remains within the LSRA, typological

comparisons with these areas is necessary because the materials and general

area within the LSRA are relatively unknown and unexplored. There has been

very little excavation of deeply stratified sealed deposits within the

resource area.

147

Researchers and contractors conducting archaeological investigations

within the resource area have relied on cross dating recovered projectile

points with those associated with excavated multiple component sites that

contained sequential developments and extensive time spans. In many cases,

because the area surrounding the LSRA has not been extensively explored

archaeologically, archaeologists have had to reach far afield for

comparisons, thus weakening the local relationships and interpretations.

Until this "marginal" area has been more fully investigated, these

comparisons and correlations will have to be viewed as tentative and only as

general characteristics of broad cultural periods present in the resource

area.

There have been 324 projectile points recovered and curated from the

Little Snake Resource Area. Only 73, however, have been analyzed by the

collectors and compared with surrounding cultural areas. One hundred and

fourteen points have been identified to very broad cultural periods. Three

points have been classified as unidentified Paleo-Indian, 37 points as

unidentified Archaic, and 51 as undefined Late Prehistoric. These

undetermined projectile-point types may be the result of the fragmentary

nature of the point remains or the lack of comparable specimens in the

surrounding areas (Table 20).

Figure 1 displays projectile-point types, approximate dates, and

cultural affiliation for the various chronologies from surrounding areas

that were used to compile the following type descriptions. The descriptions

are organized according to chronological sequence and cultural area. Four

basic time periods described by Willey and Phillips (1958) are used to

subdivide the prehistoric occupation reflected in the projectile-point

148

TABLE 20

TYPED PROJECTILE POINTS FROM LSRA

NumberProjectile Approximate Cultural IdentifiedPoint Type Approximate Date Affiliation LSRA

Clovis 9250-9550 BC Early Paleo-Indian 1

Folsom 7050-9050 BC Paleo-Indian 2

Midland 8750-8450 BC Paleo-Indian 2

Agate Basin 8550-8050 BC Paleo-Indian 2

Scottsbluff-Eden 6850-8250 BC Late Paleo-Indian 2

Hawken 4550-4350 BC Early Plains Archaic 1

McKean 4950-2950 BC Middle Plains Archaic 9

Duncan 4950-2950 BC Middle Plains Archaic 4

Hanna 4950-2950 BC Middle Plains Archaic 1

Mallory 4950-2550 BC Middle Plains Archaic 1

Pinto 6300-4200 BC Middle-Late Archaic 3

Humbolt 5650-4150 BC Archaic 1

Elko Series 5650 BC-Historic? Late Paleo-Indian tohistoric 16

Rose Springs AD 450-AD 1650 Late Archaic 13Cottonwood AD 1000-AD 1650 Late Fremont-Proto-

historic 4

Desert-side Notched AD 900-AD 1200 Numic-Protohistoric 6

Uinta Side Notched AD 800-AD 1720 Late Fremont-Proto-historic 3

Historic AD 1640-AD 1870 Ute-Shoshone 2

UndeterminedPaleo-Indian

Undetermined Archaic

3

37

Undetermined LatePrehistoric 51

149

Projectile Point Sequence Regional Cultural Sequence

c .c<D u x:TJ uUJ

foc o

c- u- CT> 

ifl 3 o oro u W o L/1

T? ca a >, u 01 fl *F C i^ C c c t. </) </l cO 01 *-> (1) <tj fD IT3 o O O o 1- «a

\a »-> 4-> -*. fl' U C -*-J o 01 •!-> OJ

tj <T3 a 1 ^ C c c F j*: </> 4-> l/>

o cn <v o 3 m ru 3 o o CD

u. E X ^ o 3. ^ a. a; LiJ a; <_) o =>

o +->

l. r- raO i—<_> a.

t- o4-> GOtrt cri

— oD- I -tJ Recent

a> u

C E_ O 3a. u. z

>p- O) Mf-(D (_> ai u o

m a, cohs F CT>

01 41~ cri

A3C

i. <T3

o z: ITJ

Transitional

01 O-i

0) >J- *-<J3 CC

01 oI—

I

3 O

150

collection. These are the Paleo-Indian, Archaic, Formative, and

Ethnohistoric periods. The Paleo-Indian will be examined as a time period

that spans all cultural areas.

Paleo-Indian

Clovis . These well made lanceolate projectile points are fluted and

characterize the earliest cultural tradition of the Paleo-Indian horizon

the Llano tradition. This tradition is well documented at mammoth sites

in New Mexico and Arizona and has been radiocarbon dated to 11,200 to

11,500 B.P. (9250 to 9550 B.C.). The closest evidence of Clovis hunters

to the study area is the Union Pacific Mammoth Kill site located near the

Little Snake River by Rawlins, Wyoming. Although some question remains as

to whether the site is a Clovis site, because of the lack of diagnostic

projectile points, a radiocarbon date of 11,280 + 350 B.P. (9330 B.C.) on

tusk material falls within the time span of the Llano tradition. The

Clovis point is considered to be typically a Plains adaptation, but it has

been found on a tundra ridgecrest in Rocky Mountain National Park

(Benedict 1975). There are no reported sites for the Colorado Plateau

(Schroedl 1976).

One Clovis type point has been recorded in the resource area at an

open-camp site on Cross Mountain (Gardner 1981).

Folsom . The Folsom complex is characterized by the smaller, more

finely made fluted Folsom point and, although not directly, follows the

Llano tradition. Associated dates range between 9,000 to 11,000 B.P.

(7050 to 9050 B.C.). Characterised as a High Plains culture like the

151

Llano tradition, the Folsom point has also been found as surface finds on

the Uncompahgre Plateau (Huscher 1939), in the Unitah Basin (Lindsay and

Lund 1976), in the Grand Junction area (Steward 1938), and along the Front

Range (Benedict 1975).

Two Folsom points have been reported within the resource area. The

sites, one an open-camp site and the other an open-lithic site, are

multicomponent , containing diagnostic artifacts from later periods (Chase

1981). Several reports, although unconfirmed, of Folsom finds in the

vicinity of Sunbeam and Maybell have been made by local residents and

members of the Vermillion Creek Chapter of the Colorado Archaeological

Society.

Midland . This variety of point closely resembles the Folsom point

and may in fact be unf luted Folsom points (Frison 1978). At the Hell Gap

site in east-central Wyoming, a separation between Midland and Folsom is

perceived, but with some overlap (Irwin-Williams et al. 1973). At the

Hansen site, the Midland-type projectile points occurred in the same

cultural layer as the Folsom points (Frison 1978). Midland dates are

thought to occur between 10,700 and 10,400 B.P. (8750 and 8450 B.C.). Two

Midland type points have been reported at multicomponent open-camp sites

in the resource area (Stucky 1974; O'Neil et al. 1982).

A number of point types representing a relatively more diverse

archaeological culture are associated with the Piano Period, 9500 to 6500

B.P. (7550 to 4550 B.C.), the last of the Paleo-Indian horizon. These

points are finely pressure flaked, producing shallow, parallel flake

scars, lanceolate shapes, and lenticular cross sections. Point complexes

found in the resource area representing this period are the Agate Basin

and Scottsbluff-Eden point types.

152

Agate Basin . Two Agate Basin type points have been recorded in the

resource area—one as an isolated find (Hansen 1978) and the other at an

open-camp site (Stucky 1974).

The type site for the Agate Basin point is a Paleo-Indian bison trap

and butchering site centered along an arroyo located in extreme eastern

Wyoming (Roberts 1951; Bass 1970; Frison 1978). Recent reinvestigation of

the site yielded charcoal dates of 10,330 + 570 B.P. (8380 B.C.) (Frison

1978). The points associated with this complex represent an "excellence

in stone flaking technology" with straight blade edges, lenticular in

cross-section and ground on all edges (Frison 1978). Agate Basin type has

been dated at the Hell Gap site at between 10,500 and 10,000 B.P. (8550

B.C. and 8050 B.C.) (Irwin-Williams et al. 1973).

Scottsbluff-Eden . This type is associated with the Cody Complex of

the Piano Period. The Cody Complex was defined at the Horner site near

Cody, Wyoming, (Jepsen 1953) and yielded radiocarbon dates, suggesting the

complex lasted from 8800 to 8400 B.P. (6850 B.C. to 8250 B.C.). Points

are often typed as Scottsbluf f and Eden, but, according to Frison (1978)

and others , may not be separate types but rather a continum of variation

with intermediate forms. Two points identified as Cody Complex types have

been recorded for the resource area. One was located in Routt County on

an open-lithic site 5RT139 (Wheeler 1980; Hand 1980). The second was

located in the Hiawatha area by LOPA on an open-camp site with multiple

components (Jones and Jennings 1977). Scottsbluff points have also been

reported from 5MF132 in Brown's Park (Breternitz 1970) and in Dinosaur

National Monument in lower levels of Deluge Shelter (Leach 1970).

153

Archaic

The following point types are represented in the Northwestern Plains

cultural area.

Hawken . This point type, defined by Frison et al. (1976) is

associated with the Early Plains Archaic, radiocarbon dated at the Hawken

site at about 6500 to 6300 B.P. (4550 B.C. to 4350 B.C.). These points

are considered to be the earlist side-notched type known from the

Northwestern Plains associated with a bison kill and might have possibly

been "a local innovation derived from the terminal Paleo Indian" (Frison

1978:199). Frison also qualifies this statement by noting a possible

derivation or relationship with points further east. The Hawken type is

found, in rare instances, in the northern Colorado Plateau, but as yet

unrecorded in the Great Basin (Schroedl 1976). At Sudden Shelter the

point dates approximately 6500 to 4600 B.P. (4550 B.C. to 2650 B.C.),

falling into Schroedl' s Castle Valley Phase. Holmer (1978) suggests that

the presence of the Plains-associated type in the plateau area and not in

the Great Basin may indicate a shift from close association to

diversification between the two areas. One Hawken- type point was recorded

in the resource area by Stevens (1981) during test excavations near Axial.

McKean Complex . The McKean complex is characterized in southern

Wyoming by large, side notched and basically indented points occuring

about 3000 to 1000 B.C. (4950 to 2950 B.P.) This complex signals the

beginning of the Middle Plains Archaic Period defined by Frison (1978).

Diagnostic points include Duncan, Hanna, and Mallory types. Nine points

have been described as McKean for the resource area, all associated with

154

archaeological sites. Duncan and Hanna types are recorded on four sites

and as one isolated find.

The point sequence that occurs in the western Great Basin is, from

earliest to most recent, the Pinto Series, Humboldt Concave Base, Elko

Series, Eastgate Series, Rose Spring Series, Cottonwood Series, and

Desert-Side Notched. The following seven point types are represented in

the Great Basin and Colorado Plateau cultural areas.

Pinto Basin . These points are described by Harrington (1957) as

large, crude, thick and often asymmetrical. They are manufactured by

percussion, with some pressure retouch. These Desert Archaic types are

dated in the Colorado Plateau and Southern Plains around 6350 B.C. and

persist for approximately 2,000 years (Holmer 1978). A firm date for the

Pinto materials has never been established; however, Leach (1970) accepts

a late Alt ithermal- early Medithermal time period, which fits correlated

materials he found at Deluge Shelter. Discrepencies in the dating have

been hypothesized by Holmer (1978) as possibly indicating an introduction

of the Pinto series points into the central and western Great Basin from

the east. Schroedl finds Pinto series characterising the earlier subphase

of the Black Knoll Phase, 6300 B.C. to 4200 B.C. Three Pinto Basin type

points have been recorded from the resource area. One point was located

at an open-architectural site, which also contained beads and a metal

projectile point (Baker and Reed 1978). The second point was found at an

open-camp site near Vermillion Mesa (Hoefer and Thompson 1984). The last

point was an isolated find (Gordon et al. 1982).

Humboldt Series . These points date from approximately 5650 B.C. to

4150 B.C. in the eastern Great Basin, which is similar to that of the

155

Pinto series points (Holmer 1978). On the Colorado Plateau this type

appears during the later subphase of the Castle Valley phase, around 3050

B.C. (Schroedl 1976). Descriptions of the series vary. Aikens (1970)

described the series as having contracting blade edges about one- third

the vertical distance from the base giving the point "shoulders."

According to Heizer and Hester (1978), the points are extremely convex

without shoulders. Heizer and Hester (1978) dated the Humboldt series to

3920 to 1100 B.C. One Humboldt series point has been reported by James

Head of Western Wyoming College at an open-camp site near Hiawatha Camp.

Elko Series . The series includes side-notched, corner-notched and

"eared" varieties and was defined by Heizer and Baumhoff (1961) as large

stemmed, often asymmetrical and produced by the percussion method and

pressure retouch. As Holmer (1978:62) points out, "the Elko series

projectile points are the most plentiful but the least temporally

diagnostic of the point types commonly found in the northern Colorado

Plateau and the far eastern Great Basin." They occurred after 5650 B.C.

and possibly persisted into historic times. Heizer and Hester (1978)

suggested a temporal span of 2000 B.C. to A.D. 1080 and remarked that

certain varieties, such as the Elko corner-notched, might have continued

beyond this time. Sixteen points identified as Elko series type have been

recorded for the resource area from 13 open sites. Three Elko points were

recovered as isolated finds.

15 6

Formative

Rose Springs Series , This series has been defined by Lanning (1963)

and is described as small, stemmed points with straight convex bases and

blade form, ranging from convex sided to concave sided. There are three

defined types within the series: side-notched, corner-notched, and

contracting stem. These small points mark a major shift in technology

from spear to arrow. In his discussion of the types, Clewlow (1967)

states that the corner-notched type appear to have occurred between the

end of the Elko Series (ca. A.D. 600) and the appearance of the Desert

side-notched. Heizer and Hester (1978) suggested that these points first

appeared earlier than 300 B.C. and flourished between A.D. 600 to 1100,

with some varieties continuing into historic times. The Rose Spring

Series has been associated with Fremont occupation in Dinosaur National

Monument, among many places, but recent investigations by Webster (1980)

and others find the series dating as early as 3300 B.P. (1350 BC. The bow

and arrow did not become the dominant weapon until ca. A.D. 250.

According to Webster (1980:65), considering "the full range of

evidence in light of the findings from Dry Creek there can be little doubt

that the bow and arrow was present in the Basin well before Fremont horti-

culturalists came on the scene, and consequently arrowpoints can have

little value as Fremont diagnostics in archaeological deposits." Thirteen

Rose Spring Series points are on record for the resource area for 12 sites

and one isolated find. Five of the sites are considered multicomponent,

including diagnostic artifacts from before and after the Rose Spring

Series dates.

157

Ethnohistoric

Desert-Side Notched . This type is described by Baumhoff and Byrne

(1959) as small, basically triangular with narrow notches removed from the

side near the base, which is either straight, concave, "V" shaped, or

notched. This type is widely distributed in the Great Basin, with similar

forms found in the Western Plains and the southwest as well. Heizer and

Hester (1978) estimate the beginning dates of A.D. 1100 to 1200 for these

points; Leach (1970) and Baumhoff and Byrne (1959) conclude that the type

was used much earlier, A.D. 900. Breternitz (1970a) and Leach (1970) have

suggested that the Desert side-notched type is affiliated with Shoshonean

origin or influence in the Dinosaur National Monument area. In the

resource area, five Desert side-notched points have been recorded, all

associated with prehistoric open-lithic or open-camp site types. The

Uintah side-notched type falls within this type but lacks the basal notch

or concavity. Three Unitah side-notched points have been recorded, all in

the Danforth Hills area.

Cottonwood Series . Lanning (1963) describes this type as pressure

flaked, small and nonstemmed. Two forms occur, triangular and

leaf-shaped. Heizer and Hester (1978) found the type occurring ca. A.D.

1300 and continuing into historic times. Leach (1970) and Breternitz

(1970) recorded this type in association with Fremont occupation in

Dinosaur National Monument, with beginning dates ca. A.D. 1000. Leach

(1970) has suggested that some forms of Cottonwood may be Desert

side-notched preforms, based on the observation of the types co-occurrence

and close association at many sites. Clewlow (196 7) believes that the

158

Cottonwood series might serve as time markers, approximating Desert

side- notched type point dates. Four points in the resource area are typed

as Cottonwood triangular. Two points were found as isolated finds and two

were associated with prehistoric campsites.

Historic . Two sites in the LSRA contained metal projectile points

(Stevens 1981, Baker and Reed 1978). Stevens (1981) recovered a metal

point and Desert side-notched point during the test excavation of 5MF427.

The second metal point was recovered from the surface on an open-

architectural site, along with a Pinto Basin type point (Baker and Reed

1978). The precise date of the occurrence of European trade goods in the

resource area is not documented in the area, but it can be assumed that

this point type is affiliated with ethnohistoric groups (Ute, Shoshone)

just before or after their acquistion of the horse, approximately A.D.

1640.

As mentioned earlier, projectile point classifications are not

particularly valid markers of archaeological time horizons when viewed in

the absence of controlled stratigraphic relationships. The most

diagnostic point types are those associated with Paleo-Indian sites

because of their well defined styles and manufacturing techniques. Wide

variations in projectile-point styles occurred following the demise of the

Paleo-Indian traditions. These later point types are difficult to place

in time and geographic locality, possibly because of the influences of

larger populations and the development of individual styles in response to

the exploitation of more diverse food resources (Schroedl 1976).

General inferences can be drawn from the typed projectile points that,

with the exception of one, were collected from the surface. There appears

15 9

to be evidence for prehistoric occupation in the LSRA from Paleo-Indian

periods continuing into historic times. Plains influences that can be

identified for the area occur during the Paleo-Indian Period, Early and

Middle Plains Archaic (Frison 1978), with the heaviest representation

occurring during the Middle Plains Archaic. A continual Colorado Plateau

and Great Basin contact of some as yet undiscerned nature is evident from

approximately 3050 B.C. to at least post-Fremont times and may be

affiliated with the Desert Archaic. A Fremont occupation of the area may

be apparent if the basis of the argument comes from the presence of Rose

Spring Series type projectile points. Ethnographic groups are well

represented by projectile-point types.

The projectile-point types presented in this section are derived from

recovered points described on site forms and project reports. All were

typed by "intuitive" classification by a variety of individuals from

different academic background, training and regional affiliations. This

research methodology, based on nonquantif ied subjectively defined

attributes and individual bias of the researcher, leads to the questioning

of the validity and strength of the resulting typological system.

Classification procedures need to be standarized for the LSRA to

remove the bias of individual interpretations, training, and regional

affiliation. By quantifying the characteristic attributes of the

projectile points, comparison of the system with surrounding regions can

be made and duplicated by individual researchers. A better understanding

of the temporal and spatial relationships represented by projectile points

would be provided, as well as the evolution of particular styles and the

identif icaiton of true "horizon markers."

160

Two successful classification systems have been developed, one for

Northwestern Colorado by Kim Pinkerton (1979) and the other by Richard

Holmer (1978) for Archaic points from the eastern Great Basin and northern

Colorado Plateau. Both employ multivariate analysis of the morphological

characteristics for projectile points, and resultant mathematical

definitions were subsequently used to classify point collections. The

statistical classifications were then utilized to further refine intuitive

classifications. By employing either or both systems in the LSRA,

objective and uniform classification of recovered projectile points could

be made by a variety of researchers. Measurements could be made in the

field (in case of noncollection policies), and a nonsubjective chronology

based on projectile points could be developed for the resource area.

Ceramics

Pottery has been used most successfully in cross dating and seriation

because pottery designs, motifs, construction techniques, and vessel forms

are relatively sensitive time and spatial markers. Prehistoric ceramics

are quite scarce in the resource area, with less than 50 sherds recorded

to date. Fifteen sites are reported with ceramics, five of which

contained Anazazi ceramics. Four sites contained Shoshone ceramics, and

only one site contained ceramics affiliated with Fremont groups. An

additional five sites have been recorded that have unidentified ceramic

types. The isolated occurrences of this pottery does not necessarily mean

that Anazazi groups occupied the area, but that pottery could have come

into the area as tradeware and was used by either indigenous western

Archaic groups or by Fremont visitors. Table 21 presents the types

identified, site number, and reference.

161

TABLE 21

CERAMICS DOCUMENTED IN THE LSRA

Type Site Number Bibliographic Reference

Fremont, Cisco Variety,(Turner-Gray)

Anazazi

5MF557

Mesa Verde Redware 5MF949,5MF950Mesa Verde Black on White 5MF408Undetermined Corrugated 5MF550

5MF725

Shoshone

Unidentified

5MF3175MF5625MF7085MF847

5MF16855MF2455MF12235MF6965MF928

Jennings and Daniels 1976

Caraveo 1980Lischka 1975Jennings, Daniels 1976Metcalf 1977

Arthur 1977Jennings and Daniels 1976Hansen 1977Grand River Institute 1980

Head and Creasman 1983No ReferenceNo ReferenceNo ReferenceGardner 1981

Radiocarbon Dates

The distribution of radiocarbon dates offers information concerning

cultural and paleo-ecological events since the beginning of the Holocene, as

well as providing a framework needed to develop a regional chronology. Table

22 and Figure 2 present the 59 radiocardon dates from sites located in the

Little Snake Resource Area. These dates range from 4550 B.C. to "modern" and

include Archaic, Formative (Fremont?), Late Prehistoric, and Protohistoric

sites. Considering that the region may have been occupied for at least 10,000

years, the data base is indeed small. This is largely the result of the

dearth of excavation data.

162

TABLE 22

RADIO-CARBON DATES FOR LSRA

C-14 YearBP

Calendar YearBC

Lab Number Reference

3700+550

1085+903740+325

300+85335+65785+95895+75

1010+601030+601045+601055+601065+601240+701425+601955+602045+652110+602175+952365+75

Modern375+90970+65

1055+701090+851330+801370+651545+65

Modern

426041854165415029502590

1750 B.C.

A.D. 8651790 B.C.

A.D. 1650

A.D. 1615A.D. 1165A.D. 1055A.D. 940A.D. 920A.D. 905A.D. 895A.D. 885A.D. 710A.D. 525

5 B.C.

95 B.C.

160 B.C.

225 B.C.415 B.C.

A.D. 1950A.D. 1575A.D. 980A.D. 895A.D. 860A.D. 620A.D. 580A.D. 405

A.D. 1950

2310 B.C.

2235 B.C.2215 B.C.2200 B.C.A.D. 955A.D. 640

UGA-2730UGA-2732UGA-3155UGA-2737UGA-2734UGA-2739UGA-2733UGA-2729UGA-2728

27352727

27262736273127252738

UGA-2741UGA-2734UGA-2744UGA-2746UGA-2745UGA-2740UGA-2742UGA-2747

UGA-2748

Stevens 1981

Stevens 1981

Arthur et al. 1982

Arthur et al. 1982

Arthur et al. 1982

O'Nell 1980

163

TABLE 22 (continued)RADIO-CARBON DATES ?0R LSRA

Site Number C-14 Year Calendar Year Lab Number ReferenceBP ]BC

5MF510 2480 530 B.C. UGA-1354 Jennings andDaniels 1976

2560 610 B.C. UGA-13562595 645 B.C. UGA-1355

5MF566 Modern A.D. 1950 UGA-1353 Jennings andDaniels 1976

5MF660 1440+95 A.D. 410 UGA-2975 Treat 1979

5MF745 675+80 A.D. 1275 UGA-2749 Arthur et al. 1982

945+115 A.D. 1005 UGA-2750

5MF958 1055+230 A.D. 895 UGA-3998 Burchett 19821280+50 A.D. 670 Beta 7013 Reust et al. 1984

1500+90 A.D. 450 Beta 70201790+130 A.D. 160 Beta 7021

Cherokee Trail #1 2470+140 520 :B.C. Kosarko 1978

(unrecorded) 1390+110 A.D. 560

1270+100 A.D. 6801250+100 A.D. 700

5RT11 1730+225 A.D. 220 Die 1390 O'Neil 1980

5RT130 1130+230 A.D. 820 RL1227 Tucker 1981

5RT139 Modern A.D. 1950 RL1430 Tucker 1981tt

A.D. 1950 RL1426tt

A.D. 1950 RL1432tt

A.D. 1950 RL1428Modern A.D. 1950 RL1431

nA.D. 1950 RL1429

5900 3950 B.C. RL14346430 4480 B.C.

1130 820 B.C.

164

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Figure 3. A. Radiocarbon dates from southwestern Wyoming (After Mackey,

Sail and Creasman 1982; Mackey et al. 1982). B. Radiocarbon

dates from Moffat, Routt, Garfield, and Rio Blanco Counties,

Colorado.Figure 3

165

Schroedl (1976) observed three major breaks in the radiocarbon date

distribution for Archaic and Fremont sites in the Northern Colorado

Plateau. The first break, or haitus, is a period from which no radio-

carbon dates were reported and correlates with the Paleo- Indian period and

pre-Boreal and Boreal climatic episodes described by Bryson and Wendland

(1974). The lack of dates creating the break is not surprising, because

of the lack of sealed stratified Paleo-Indian sites in the area, although

a number of surface finds have been recovered (Schroedl 1976:24). This

"break" is also evident in the LSRA for much the same reason.

The second break in the Northern Colorado Plateau radiocarbon dates

occurs between 3500 B.C. and 4050 B.C., placing it in the middle of

Antev's Altithermal Period, 2050 B.C. to 5550 B.C. (Antevs 1955). For the

Little Snake Resource Area there is no apparent break, but there is an

early "peak" occurring around 2250 B.C., at the close of the Altithermal.

The last discontinuity falls between 1050 B.C. and 550 B.C., which is

extended by Schroedl from 1050 B.C. to 150 B.C. because of nonconformity

of the data. The haitus corresponds to botanic discontinuites described

by Bryson and Wendland (1974) during the transition from sub-Boreal to

sub-Atlantic episodes and the cultural haitus described by Madsen and

Berry (1975) in the eastern Great Basin. They have shown a possible

temporal gap of 2,000 years between and Archaic Fremont occupations at

Hogup Cave and, based on this break, hypothesize an abandonment of the

eastern Great Basin by Archaic populations. This break is not apparent in

the LSRA radiocarbon dates. In fact, from 650 B.C. to historic times, no

breaks over 200 years are apparent. This data may support the movement of

prehistoric populations east from the Basin into the Plateau areas.

166

Radiocarbon date frequency distributions may reflect the size of

prehistoric populations in the area, with the increase in the number of

radiocarbon dates marking increases in the number of sites and thus

increases in population (Schroedl 1976). Schroedl (1976) notes two peaks

occurring during the Archaic (4550 B.C. and 1950 B.C.) and one during

Fremont occupation (A.D. 950). This last peak corresponds well with the

data for the resource area.

Radiocarbon dates for southwestern Wyoming were compiled by Mackey et

al. (1983), who generated nine observations regarding prehistoric

population changes. These observations indicate a low Paleo-Indian

population, with a 2,000-year gap between the Paleo-Indian and the

earliest dated Archaic occupation. Overall, the Altithermal is marked

also by low population density, with a short-termed increase during the

Middle Altithermal, coinciding with a mesic climatic fluctuation. A

stable population density is observed from 2000 B.C. to A.D. 1000, with a

marked increase beginning around A.D. 100, partly because of a favorable

and stable climatic regime with increased precipitation toward the end of

the period. A marked decrease at A.D. 1300 coincides with an erosional

period resulting from a shift to an xeric climatic regime. A lack of

dates after A.D. 1600 is attributed to restrictions in the applicaion of

radiocarbon dating and European contact.

Comparing these observations with the LSRA dates, there appears to be

a similar increase in dates between approximately A.D. 100 to A.D. 1000.

A 200-year gap, A.D. 1050 and A.D. 1250, is apparent, however, which

precedes the A.D. 1300 drop in radiocarbon dates in southwestern Wyoming.

167

The LSRA dates indicate occupation in the area during the early and late

Altithermal but no corresponding increase during the Middle Altithermal,

as observed in southwestern Wyoming dates. In fact, there is a lack of

dates for this period. Although a bit premature, considering the small

data base, it is conceivable that during periods of xeric climate regimes

in southwestern Wyoming/Plains areas, the generally higher elevations in

the project area and related increase in precipitation may have been an

attractive "refuge" for Plains Altithermal populations (Mackey et al.

1983) . Post-Altithermal occupation in the LSRA corresponds with

observatons of stable populations in the Plains, except they begin later,

around 1350 B.C., and last until around A.D. 200. A marked increase in

dates follows 200 years later, A.D. 400 to 450, and continues into A.D.

900. This corresponds roughly with the increase in southwestern Wyoming

dates for that time. The rapid decrease in dates after A.D. 1000 also

occurs in both areas. The differential slopes of growth rate may

represent levels of efficiency in exploitation of resources underwriting

population increases. Without further cultural material evidence, it is

too early to assign a Fremont appearance and demise to these later peaks.

As C. Jennings (1984) points out, general correlations for dates between

the two regions are expected because of the similar topographic

situations. Local environmental variability probably influenced climatic

trends and, in turn, prehistoric populations, causing variation in area

adaptations that could be reflected in the radiocarbon dates.

168

Since these general comparisons are drawn from a data base of only 58

dates and 14 sites, caution must be taken in interpreting this data. As

the number of chronometric data grows for the area and is associated with

diagnostic cultural material, refinement of the chronological sequence

will be possible.

169

IV.

SYNOPSIS

The cultural history in the LSRA, as well as in surrounding areas of the

Plains/Plateau and Great Basin, is still not completely understood. As a

result, the relationships between the various chronological cultural

divisions utilized in the framework are unknown. Because these interfaces

are unclear, the temporal divisions should be considered more as

chronologically ordered artifactual/economic complexes rather than

developmental phases or stages

.

A generalized cultural sequence for the LSRA can be constructed using

the data from previous archaeological research. Most of the

archaeological remains are a result of activities of hunting and gathering

cultures who survived by collecting plants and pursuing game animals. An

important exception to this may be the Fremont tradition, which featured

both cultivation and storage of domesticated plant foods.

The basic time periods used in this overview are taken from the

chronologies of Willey and Phillips (1958) and divide the prehistoric

occupation into four periods: Paleo- Indian, Archaic, Formative, and

Ethnohistoric. These periods must be seen as frames of reference centered

around basic subsistance patterns and not absolute time markers.

Surrounding cultural areas (Great Basin, Plateau, Plains) chronological

periods will be included under the five generic periods. The Paleo- Indian

will be examined as a time period that spans both cultural areas. The

Plains cultural area will be examined and subdivided from the Archaic

through the Ethnohistoric using Frison's (1978) chronology for the

170

Northwest Plains. Chronologies from J. Jennings (1978) will be used for

the Great Basin culture area and the chronology developed by Schroedl

(1976) and Leach (1970) will be used for the Colorado Plateau and Dinosaur

National Park areas.

The basic chronology is:

Paleo-Indian StageEarlyMiddleLate

Archaic StageColorado Plateau/Great BasinNorthwestern Plains

Early Plains ArchaicMiddle Plain ArchaicLate Plains Archaic

Formative StateFremont

Protohistoric Ute-Shoshone/Late Prehistoric

171

Paleo-Indian

Haynes divides the Lithic stage or Big Game Hunting tradition (Willey

and Phillips 1958) into three chronolgical periods. The Early

Paleo-Indian period is dated before 26,050 B.C. and, as yet, there is no

confirmed evidence of human occupation in North or South America during

this period. The next period, the Middle Paleo-Indian, occurs from 26,050

B.C. to 9500 B.C. and includes a number of dated sites from North and

South America, but none contained diagnostic projectile points (Schroedl

1976).

Within the LSRA there are no reported sites, complexes or associations

that fall into either of these early periods. To the north and west,

however, the problematical Blacks Fork Culture was defined in the late

1930s by E.B. Renaud in the Bridger Basin along the Blacks Fork River in

Wyoming. Cultural material collected there was thought to be

typologically similar to Old World Paleolithic implements and assigned an

estimate age of 30 to 40 thousand years old. This culture was later

disputed by Sharrock (1966) who found, through excavation and survey, the

Blacks Fork assemblage to be composed of tool blanks and preforms from

quarry sites and having no great antiquity.

The Blacks Fork Culture is part of a phenomena commonly referred to as

the pre -projectile point stage in North American prehistory (Kreiger

1964), and although the concept is not widely accepted, documented

evidence continues to accumulate supporting the occupation of the

continent before the development known as Paleo-Indian hunting

traditions. Finds of large, crudely percussion-flaked core tools occur

172

frequently in Basin and Plateau areas (C. Jennings 1968), and artifacts

similar to core tools described by Renaud have been found and referred to

as "choppers" (Breteritz 1965). Perhaps components attributable to this

period may someday be identified in the LSRA.

The Late Paleo-Indian period is known primarily from kill sites on the

Great Plains. Lithic remains of these hunters have been noted, in sparse

quantity, in the study area. The period can be subdivided into three

distinct complexes or traditions- -the Llano or Clovis, the Folsom, and the

Piano- -based on distinctions in terms of projectile-point types, types of

fauna exploited, and temporal position.

All three complexes represent human adaptations to terminal

Pleistocene environments, with an apparent emphasis on big-game

procurement. Each of these three complexes is art ifactually represented

in the LSRA.

The earliest of the three complexes is the Llano culture (9050 B.C. to

8810 B.C.) characterized by the distinctive Clovis projectile points found

in association with now extinct forms of mammoth, horse, tapir, and

camel. A Clovis point was recovered from a multicomponent campsite/quarry

near Cross Mountain (Gardner 1981). Outside of the resource area, Clovis

surface finds have been recorded in the Skull Creek Basin south of

Dinosaur National Monument (Weber et al. 1977) and south of Rangely,

Colorado (Meacham 1980) . The nearest excavated site containing dated

cultural material attributed to Clovis occupation is the Union Pacific

Mammoth site near Rawlins, Wyoming. Although no diagnostic points were

recovered, radiocarbon dates from Mammoth tusk material fell within the

time span of the Llano period, 1950 + 350 B.C.

173

The subsequent Paleo-Indian culture known as the Folsom culture is

better represented. The Folsom, however, is not necessarily a lineal

descendent of the Clovis (Grady 1984), and there appears to be a gap of

several hundred years in which there are no dated intermediate forms

(Frison 1978). This culture (ca. 9050 B.C. to 7550 B.C.) is characterized

by the Folsom projectile point and appears to have emphasized big-game

hunting, which focused on the large, now extinct species of bison ( Bison

antiquis )

.

Two Folsom points have been discovered on multicomponent open sites in

the resource area. During a survey of Brown's Park area in 1977, members

of the Colorado Archaeological Society recorded the Raftopoulos Petroglyph

Site and were informed by local ranchers that a Folsom point had been

collected from the site a few years earlier. The second point was

discovered in a dune area along the Yampa River during the Juniper-Cross

Mountain survey in 1980 (Chase 1981) . Folsom points have also been

discovered in the vicinity of Dinosaur National Monument (Weber et al.

1977).

The presence of Folsom points suggests the penetration of the High

Plains buffalo hunting patterns past the Continental Divide and onto the

west slope of the Rockies (C. Jennings 1968). This suggestion has been

substantiated by Husted's work (1962) in the high-altitude areas of Rocky

Mountain National Park. His evidence indicated heavy use of the park

areas and open passes even during periods of glacial advance (C. Jennings

1968:16).

The recent discovery of partially fossilized Bison antiquis bones by

the BLM (Piontkowski 1981) in an arroyo bank cut near the Danforth Hills

174

south of Axial Basin indicates the presence of species thought to have

been preferred and exploited by the Folsora hunters, and the presence of

deposits of considerable antiquity in the area. The site, named the

Somemore Site, has been nominated to the NRHP. It contained two bones

with possible butcher marks, but no associated cultural material.

Following the Folsom culture is the Piano culture, which lasted until

ca. 8450 B.C. This culture focused on the exploitation of modern species

of bison and is characterized by a wide variety of large, unf luted

lanceolate points representing a relatively more diverse group of

archaeological cultures. This tradition is more widely represented in the

resource area than either of the earlier Llano or Folsom complexes.

The Piano complex has been divided into two distinct point groups:

the plain-form series and the parallel-f laked-form series (Bryan 1962).

The plain-form series is characterized by Clovis- and Folsom-type points

without the fluting and includes Plainview, Midland, Milnesand, and

Meserve forms. Two Midland points have been discovered in the resource

area on multicomponent open sites in the Sand Wash Basin (Stucky 1974).

Scottsbluff, Eden, Hell Gap, and Agate Basin types are considered to

be slightly more recent than the Plainview series. An Agate Basin type

isolated find has been recorded by Hansen (1978) on private land near

Milner along Trout Creek. Scottsbluff and Eden points belonging to the

Cody Complex have been recovered from two sites, 5RT139 and 5MF478

(wheeler 1980; Jones and C. Jennings 1977). A possible Cody Knife has

been recovered at 5RT156 near Trout Creek by Grand River Institute.

175

A Scottsbluff point was recovered from level 15 of Deluge Shelter

(Leach 1970) . Faunal material found in association with the point

included such big game animals as bison, elk, deer, and mountain sheep,

leading Leach to postulate that the level 15 material represented

short-term occupation by large game hunters.

Another site in Dinosaur National Monument, the Baker Cabin Spring

site, contained a Paleo-Indian point (Calabrese 1970). This point was

similar to the Cascade point (ca. 9050 B.C. to 7050 B.C.), but the context

in which the point was found has cast doubt on the antiquity of the level

in which it was located.

Two Piano period Paleo-Indian site components have been investigated

through excavation in the LSRA. In the Sand Wash Basin, Stucky (1974)

test excavated the Cathedral Butte Site, 5MF625, where 13 lanceolate

points (Sand Wash Type I) were recovered from the surface. The points,

considered by Stucky to date ca. 6550 B.C., appear similar to types

recovered from Pine Springs, the Sorenson Site, Bottleneck, and Mummy

Cave. Test excavation revealed two bison butchering units, groundstone,

and numerous bifaces. No stratigraphy was discernable, however, nor were

any diagnostic artifacts recovered in the test excavation. Stucky

suggests the site represents a trash midden or ancient sink hole that had

been filled by cultural debris.

Mitigative excavations at site 5RT139 located southeast of Hayden in

Routt County were conducted to investigate the occurrence of a possible

local manifestation of the Cody Complex (Tucker 1981). Previous

investigation had revealed a resharpened Scottsbluff II point in the

fenceline backdirt, suggesting a possible subsurface origin (Wheeler

176

1980a). Limited testing of the site revealed 11 features, and results

indicated the possibility of multiple occupations, a lengthy period of

area utilization, and a possible presence of Cody Complex cultural

manifestation (Hand 1980). The subsequent mitigative efforts, however,

revealed the presence of two occupations, the earliest of which is

radiocarbon dated at approximately 4050 B.C. This date is too late to

support a temporal assignation of the site to the Paleo-Indian Cody

Complex. Tucker (1981) posits a reuse of the Cody Complex material by the

occupants of the site, and suggests a Middle Archaic McKean Complex

affiliation for the site, based on associated culture material and

radiocarbon date results.

The scant evidence of Llano and Folsom remains in the LSRA and the

relatively greater amount of evidence of late Paleo-Indian Piano presence

has numerous implications for future research, especially concerning the

question of the origins of the Desert and Plains Archaic traditions. As

Schroedl (1976) points out, the abundance of surface finds attributed to

the Paleo-Indian on the Colorado Plateau may eventually indicate the

Archaic was derived from a lithic stage tradition. The possibility

remains, however, that the Archaic may have developed from earlier

non-Paleo -Indian traditions such as those found at Danger Cave, dated at

7550 B.C. (J. Jennings 1957). The apparent contemporaneity of Late

Paleo-Indian remains in the Great Plains and Early Archaic in the Great

Basin has yet to be resolved.

Little is known about the subsistence patterns of the Paleo-Indian

other than that the basic lifeway apparently remained rather stable

despite radical environmental changes within the terminal Pleistocene. As

177

the cool, moist conditions of the Pleistocene Epoch and Wisconsin Age gave

way to warmer, dryer conditions similar to modern conditions, shifts in

vegetative zones and the extinction of certain forms of Pleistocene fauna

resulted. Paleo-Indian hunting methods and types of fauna sought appear

to have changed "with the times." J. Jennings (1968) hypothesizes that

Clovis hunters stalked the mammoth individually or in very small groups.

Bison were pursued by Folsom peoples who used a more organized method of

surrounds and traps. Later Paleo-Indian groups arranged larger group

hunts using topographic features such as cliffs, arroyos and sand dunes to

trap bison. These methods often resulted in hundreds of animals being

slain in a single event (Wheat 1979; Frison 1978).

Groups are thought to have been organized at the band level, and like

ethnographic Plains groups, were relatively dispersed for much of the year

in extended family units (Jones and MacKay 1980) . Larger groups would

then assemble for communal hunts in the summer and fall as the animals

began to congregate into herds.

This mobile, big-game hunting lifestyle is reflected in the material

culture of the Paleo-Indian. Tool kits are generally composed of hunting

and butchering implements, and habitation structures are, as yet,

unknown. The full range of subsistance items is yet undetermined because

of the emphasis in excavation on kill sites (partially a result of their

high visibility) and the few excavated Paleo-Indian campsites. Grinding

slabs and handstones have been found at the Jurgens Site in eastern

Colorado (Wheat 1979), which implies that some sort of vegetal resources

were utilized.

178

Table 23 summarizes the nature of Paleo-Indian sites currently

recorded in the LSRA. Although 13 archaeological sites possibly contain

Paleo-Indian cultural material, over half are considered multiple

component sites. A similar situation has been described by Buckles

(1971). He asserts that later Archaic groups may have collected and

utilized Paleo-Indian artifacts and discarded these "heirloom" artifacts

at their own camp. This hypothesis has been partially substantiated at

5RT139 where Scottsbluff type points had been reworked and deposited over

McKean complex material (Tucker 1981).

TABLE 23PALEO-INDIAN SITES IN LSRA

Site Number Site Type Projectile Point Features

5MF1003 Open Lithic Undet Paleo-Indian None5MF1576 Open Lithic Midland None5MF1868 Open Camp Humboldt 2 Hearth-firepit5MF690 Open Camp Paleo point reported None5MF968 Isolated Find Undet Paleo-Indian None5MF969 Open Lithic None Bison Antiquis5RT139 Open Lithic Scottsbluff-Eden None5RT156 Open Camp Cody knife reported None5RT227 Isolated Find Agate Basin None

Two Paleo-Indian points are isolated finds. None of the sites contained

remains of extinct fauna in association with cultural material, nor were the

deposits dated.

Although some of the Paleo-Indian projectile points may have been reused

by later Archaic peoples, their presence in the LSRA still suggests at least a

sporadic use of the area as early as 9050 B.C. and distribution throughout

much of the area. Five of the sites appear to be single component sites that

179

were found on ridges or terraces overlooking permanent water sources such as

springs and major water courses. Leach (1970) has suggested, based on

observations of the similarities between Paleo-Indian material found at Deluge

Shelter and Cody Complex material from the southwestern portion of Wyoming,

that movement between Dinosaur National Monument and the northwestern Plains

could have occurred through the Wyoming Basin to the Plains, as well as along

the Little Snake River.

The present knowledge of Paleo-Indian occupation of the LSRA is sketchy at

best, but it is certain that the region was utilized by early big-game

hunters. One possibility for the reason so little is known about Paleo-Indian

occupation is that periods of heavy alluviation subsequent to the Big Game

Hunter occupation have buried the sites, and an erosional cycle will be

necessary to expose them in sufficient number to analyze (C. Jennings 1968).

Deep arroyo cuts or excavation by mechanical means (construction, mining)

should be investigated at all opportunities in the event Paleo-Indian cultural

material might be exposed. Although there are scattered surface finds from

all three late Paleo-Indian period complexes, no sealed, stratified dated

deposits in the LSRA have yet produced evidence from this lithic stage. Given

the number of finds and the evidence for Pleistocene fauna in the region,

there is an excellent possibility that a sealed Paleo Indian site will

eventually be located. The extent and nature of Paleo-Indian use of the LSRA

is still a matter to be resolved by future research.

Archaic Stage

The Pleistocene environmental conditions gave way to modern conditions by

approximately 5500 B.C. The Archaic tradition, which follows the Paleo-Indian

180

tradition, is marked by a change in subsistance patterns in partial

response to this changing environment. Big-game hunting changed to a more

generalized hunting-gathering lifestyle, with an emphasis on more and

smaller fauna species and a wide variety of vegetal foodstuffs.

This change is reflected in the diversity of cultural material.

Projectile points include stemmed and indented base types, certain styles

of lanceolate types, and large side and corner-notched types. Basketry,

digging sticks, manos, and metates further reflect the increased emphasis

on the collection and processing of vegetal and faunal resources.

Mountain sheep, antelope, mule deer bones, and more infrequently, bison

bones are found along with rabbit, waterfowl, and rodent bones. Plant

remains include pickleweed, grasses, prickly pear, rabbitbrush, sagebrush,

saltbush, and hackberries (J. Jennings 1978). This subsistence strategy,

based on broad -focus hunting and gathering, was practiced by mobile bands

and is generally thought to span the period from approximately 7050 B.C.

to A.D. 450 (Jones and MacKay 1980).

The post-Pleistocene shift to a more intensive exploitation of the

environment in the western United States was originally termed the Desert

Culture but has been defined more generally as the Western Archaic by

J. Jennings (1974). The original definition of the Desert Culture was

developed in the Great Basin Province of Utah and Nevada where resource

density and variability was more homogenous than western Colorado—the

more general definition considers the variability of environments where

western Archaic sites are found.

The Archaic stage is defined by Willey and Phillips (1958) as "the

stage of migratory hunting and gathering cultures continuing into

181

environmental conditions approximating those of the present." Schroedl

(1976) points out that boundaries and distinctions between the Archaic and

earlier and later stages are not clearcut but grade into each other as

they shift slowly from one subsistence base to another.

The relatively great variety of environmental zones in the LSRA may

have presented an ideal area particularly suited for the seasonal,

intensive exploitation pattern of the western Archaic cultures. In fact,

there are more sites attributed to this tradition in the LSRA than those

of previous traditions. This may, in part, be due to larger populations

and a longer time span. Radiocarbon dates from Danger Cave and Hogup Cave

have indicated occupations associated with the Desert Culture as early as

8320 B.C. (Aikens 1970). If these dates are correct, the Desert Culture

may have had its beginnings as early as during the Folsom tradition. A

terminal date of A.D. 1776 for the tradition in western Colorado is

arbitrarily based on written descriptions of the aboriginal peoples by

Escalante (Lishka 1975). Escalante referred to the aboriginal inhabitants

as "Yutas" or Utes; these groups followed a Western Archaic lifeway until

forced out of the area by white settlers. (Changes in the Western Archaic

pattern had occurred among the Utes prior to A.D. 1776, however, with the

introduction of the horse sometime after A.D. 1640.)

Regional variants of this Desert Culture have been described by Marie

Wormington and Robert Lister (Wormington 1955 ; Wormington and Lister

1956). A close resemblance has been noted between the Uncompahgre complex

stemmed projectile points and those found at Danger Cave in Zone V, dated

from 2000 B.C. to A.D. 20 (J. Jennings 1968). C. Jennings (1968) has

pointed out that, based on geological deposition, the Taylor site in the

182

Uncompahgre may be as recent as A.D. 850, implying an extremely long

duration of the Desert Culture tradition in the area. Buckles (1971)

further maintains a continuity between the Archaic Uncompahgre complex and

the historic Ute, and that these phases and assemblages are united by a

common cultural tradition based on a hunting and gathering lifeway.

Excavated data concerning the Archaic Stage in the LSRA region comes

primarily from one rock shelter, Deluge Shelter (Leach 1970), and

specifically from a few open-camp sites --5RT139, the Lay site, 5MF428, and

5MF429. The sparse nature of the deposits from these sites, with the

exception of Deluge Shelter, preclude a detailed description of local

Archaic prehistory, and interpretation of the evidence from these sites

depends largely on comparison and integration with information from other

regions.

Colorado Plateau/Great Basin

Schroedl (1976) has assembled data from Archaic sites located on the

Colorado Plateau and breaks the Archaic Period into four phases based on

cultural and geological evidence, radiocarbon dates, and artifact cross

dating from two recently excavated Archaic sites, Cowboy Cave and Sudden

Shelter. He defines the Archaic as "a stage of migratory hunting and

gathering cultures following a seasonal pattern of efficient exploitation

of a limited number of selected plant and animal species within a number

of different ecozones" (1976:11). Schroedl maintains that the purported

"broad spectrum" foundation of Archaic adaptation is in error, and

demonstrates that Archaic populations on the Plateau exploited only a

183

handful of plant and animal resources, were at an optimal population size,

and fluctuated in size in relation to the availability of resources.

As Jones and MacKay (1980) pointed out, however, Schroedl's hypotheses

are based on the assumption that the density of regional Archaic

population is directly related to the number of radiocarbon dates and

artifact density from sites for any given time period. They find the

assumptions theoretically unsound, but useful as a framework to be tested

and modified (1980:49-50).

The earliest phase in Schroedl's scheme is the Black Knoll Phase,

dating from 6350 B.C. to 4250 B.C. The phase is further subdivided into

early and late subphases, with corresponding population and artifact

change. The Early Black Knoll Phase is typified by a slowly growing

population and Pinto Series projectile points and lasts until 5250 B.C.

During the Late Black Knoll Phase there appears to be a dramatic increase

in population, along with the appearance of Northern side -notched and Elko

series points.

There is a contrast in subsistence patterns between sites located at

higher elevations with those at lower elevations. Higher elevation sites

appear to focus on the hunting of large artiodactyls, while at lower

elevations subsistence activities were confined to gathering vegetable

resources. Schroedl interprets this difference in two ways: 1) during

this period, resource exploitation was highly specialized by local groups;

or 2) these sites represent stops on an annual round.

This phase corresponds with level 14 at Deluge Shelter (Leach 1970)

where Pinto Basin series points were recovered. Three surface finds typed

as Pinto Basin have been located in the LSRA. A radiocarbon date from

184

site 5RT139 falls within the later phase period, along with 16 Elko series

points from surface collections.

The second period of Schroedl's classif icaion is the Castle Valley

Phase, 4250 B.C. to 2550 B.C., which is also divided into two subphases.

The early subphase is characterized by a decrease in population or

intensity of population and the appearence of the Rocker Base, the Sudden,

and Hawken side-notched points. About 3050 B.C., population size

increased but did not reach earlier numbers; and Humboldt and lanceolate

series points appear to dominate, along with the appearence of slab-lined

firepits. Additional evidence indicated a change to a somewhat dryer

environment than earlier or later periods.

The Castle Valley phase is not indicated in the deposits at Deluge

Shelter (Leach 1970); and only two points, one a possible Hawkin point

fragment and the other a Humboldt type, have been recovered from surface

deposits in the LSRA. One radiocarbon date of 3950 B.C. from a fire

hearth in subsurface deposits at 5RT139 falls within the early subphase of

this period.

The Green River Phase follows the Castle Valley Phase and ranges from

2550 B.C. to 1350 B.C. The phase has two regional (the High Plateau and

the Northeastern Plateau) and an early and late subphase. The early

subphase of the northeastern Plateau variant is typified by relatively

higher population and the appearence of McKean complex artifacts such as

Duncan and Hanna point types. These point types are common to the

Northwestern Plains and possibly indicate a Plains influence. The High

Plateau variant, meanwhile, begins with the introduction of Gypsum points

and San Rafael side-notched points.

185

By the late subphase only the Gypsum points are apparent in the High

Plateau, and the nature and extent of Plains influence in the Northeastern

Plateau variant is unknown.

The Northeastern Plateau varient in the early Green River Phase is

well represented at Deluge Shelter in level 12 where Duncan-Hanna points

were recovered. Further east along Lay Creek, test excavations conducted

by Powers Elevation (O'Neil 1980) at an open camp, 5MF476, revealed a

McKean Lanceolate point in Zone 4 radiocarbon dated at 2310 B.C. and 2215

B.C. Test excavations in Axial Basin of two open camps also revealed

radiocarbon dates coinciding with the early phase of the Green River

period. Site 5MF428 was dated to 1750 B.C., and 5MF429 was dated to

1790 B.C. No diagnostic artifacts were directly associated with the dated

features, but two Mallory points were found during surface collection of

5MF428.

Surface collections from LSRA contain 14 points possibly associated

with this early Green River phase that represent the McKean Complex—nine

McKean points, four Duncan points, and one Hanna point have been described,

The last phase of Schroedl's scheme is the Dirty Devil, lasting from

1350 B.C. to A.D. 450. It is considered the most tenuous of all the

phases because of the lack of radiocarbon dates from 150 B.C. to 1050

B.C. There is a continuity of the Gypsum point from the preceeding Green

River phase through this phase and on into the Formative Period. The

introduction of the bow and arrow during this phase is the only new

addition and it marks the end of this phase. At Deluge Shelter, levels 5

through 3 are placed in this phase, with Elko series points present in all

four levels.

186

The discontinuity in the chronology between 150 B.C. and 1050 B.C.

corresponds with the cultural and botanical irregularities noted by Madsen

and Berry (1975) and Bryson and Wendland (1967). The Madsen and Berry

(1975) hypothesis concerns the Archaic Period in the Great Basin and

Colorado Plateau and states that much of the northeastern Great Basin was

abandoned from around 2500 BP to 1500BP because of increased effective

moisture, which in turn caused the waters of the Great Salt Lake to rise

and destroy the peripheral resources of the lake. Many archaeologists

believe that this destruction upset human exploitation patterns in the

region and forced the subsequent migration of peoples into upland areas of

eastern Utah and the Colorado plateau. The Madsen Berry model further

denies the possibility that the following Fremont (Formative) Culture

developed in situ in the Great Salt Lake region from a native Archaic

base, but suggests an Eastern Utah/Western Colorado locus of origin for

the Fremont.

Within the LSRA, radiocarbon dates taken from excavated levels at five

sites reveal occupation of the area during the hiatus period. The five

sites are located in different parts of the resource area. The Cherokee

trail is located in Powder Wash and reveals multiple occupations beginning

at least as early as 520 B.C. (Kosarko 1978). Along Milk Creek, site

5MF435 contained cultural material and radiocarbon dates indicating a

beginning occupation by 415 B.C. Three dates from 5MF510 located near

Savory-Pothook straddle the beginning dates for the haitus. Occupation

187

along the confluence of the Williams Fork and the Yampa Rivers begins at

5MF436 at the end of the hypothesized haitus. A final date of A.D. 220

comes from 5RTR11 along the foothills of the Rockies.

This data suggest that the environmental events that occurred in the

Great Basin probably did not cause a corresponding abandonment of the LSRA

area and may, in fact, have been a possible refuge for Great Basin Archaic

populations.

188

Northwestern Plains

As Grady (1984) points out, the Northwestern Plains sequence proposed

by Frison (1978) has most often been employed by researchers and

contractors when describing the regional chronology, and this has created

a sense of a Northwestern Plains influence over much of the study area.

The Northwestern Plains sequence was first developed by Mulloy (1958) and

modified by Frison (1978) into four periods, three of which can be

considered Archaic tradition. The first period is the Paleo-Indian

period, which has been examined in the previous section. Projectile-point

styles are heavily depended on for identifying the Early Plains Archaic,

the Middle Plains Archaic, and the Late Plains Archaic in the absence of

absolute dating.

As in the Great Basin, the gathering of plant materials was an

important part of the Archaic subsistence base in the Northwestern Plains,

but the hunting of bison remained an extremely important aspect of the

economy. The Early Plains Period, ca. 5050 to 3050 B.C., corresponds

roughly with the Altithermal, a time of supposedly severe climatic

conditions that was thought to represent a cultural haitus or abandonment

of lower elevations in the West. The lack of sites on the Plains tends to

confirm this view; however, substantial evidence of Early Plains Archaic

groups does exist in foothill-mountain areas (Frison 1978).

Husted (1962) hypothesized that the McKean Complex originated in the

Central and Northern Rocky Mountains and that it evolved from Paleo-Indian

hunting cultures forced from the Plains by arid conditions of the

Altithermal. Investigations along the Colorado Front Range by Benedict

189

and Olson (1978) seem to support this hypothesis with the discovery of

typologically intermediate points between the Paleo-Indian James Allen and

Pryor Stemmed points and McKean lanceolate and Duncan points, radiocarbon

dated at 4050 B.C. They further suggest that the regional climate became

more mesic about 4050 B.C., permitting Altithermal populations to return

to lower Plains elevations previously abandoned (Benedict and Olson

1978:326).

Points associated with the Early Archaic Period tend to be large and

side-notched. Excavation of 5RT139 revealed radiocarbon dates of 4480 and

3950 B.C. falling within this time frame. Tucker (1981:56) maintains that

the site may represent an occupation of the western slope Colorado Rockies

chronologically intermediate or transitional period between the

Paleo-Indian and Middle Archaic, as recognized by Benedict and Olson

(1973) on the eastern slope.

A fragment of a Hawken type point has been identified in the Axial

Basin on the surface of a multicomponent open camp by Stevens (1981).

This type was derived from a communal bison procurement site named the

Hawken Site located in northeastern Wyoming that is considered by Frison

(1978) to be a link between the Late Paleo-Indian bison hunters and those

of the Middle Plains Archaic (Frison 1978:201).

The Middle Plains Archaic, ca. 3050 to 1050 B.C., is marked by the

sudden appearance of the McKean Complex in plains and intermountain areas

previously virtually devoid of cultural evidence. The McKean Complex is

represented by a wide variety of projectile-point types (McKean

lanceolate, Mallory, Duncan, Hanna) , with the McKean lanceolate occurring

at the earlier end of the temporal range, 3050 to 1050 B.C. (Frison

190

1978:49). There appears to be a greater emphasis on plant foods,

evidenced by the occurrence of flat grinding slabs and manos along with

large numbers of roasting pits. It is also during the Middle Archaic

Period that large numbers of stone circles begin to appear.

Middle Plains Archaic sites identified through McKean Complex

projectile-point types seem to be comparatively plentiful in the LSRA.

Fifteen points have been identified and typed to this temporal period.

Radiocarbon dates from the Lay site, 5MF476, in association with McKean

type material, support a Plains occupation or influence during this time.

Sites 5MF428 and 5MF429 also provided radiocarbon dates falling within

this time span.

The Late Archaic period is marked by the appearance of large, corner-

notched points called Pelican Lake points (Frison 1978:56). The Pelican

Lake points, which date between 1050 B.C. to A.D. 450, are considered the

earliest of the corner-notched varieties of the Late Archaic period.

In the LSRA, no Pelican Lake type points have been identified,

although there are 16 radiocarbon dates from five sites that fall into

this period. Grady observed (1984:27) an increase in numbers and sizes of

sites, which suggests an increase in population size.

As can be seen, reliable chronologically controlled data on the

Archaic stage is scant. Few excavated sites indicate Archaic presence

over a long period of time and include what has been interpreted as

influence from both the Great Basin and the Plains. What must be

considered before such influence or occupation is posited is that many

projectile -point types have very broad geographical distribution, cover

many cultural groups, and were manufactured over long periods of time.

191

There are presently several phase and period sequences used by

researchers to subdivide the temporal expanse of the Archaic Stage into

smaller units, but none are without problems. With a portion of the Great

Plains physiographic province located in the LSRA boundaries, Frison's

(1978) chronology is often used. Unfortunately, the period designations

are based more on changes in point typology and too few radiocarbon

dates. Schroedl's sequence is based on numerous radiocarbon dates, but

only one site near the LSRA, Deluge Shelter, is considered in its

definition. More data than presented is needed to apply Shroedl's phases

to new assemblages in the LSRA.

Based on available radiocarbon dates and projectile-point types, there

appears to be an Archaic occupation within the LSRA throughout the

periods. Unfortunately, the dates for the most part are not associated

with diagnostic artifacts. Gaps in radiocarbon records from the northern

Colorado Plateau (Schroedl 1976), the Plains (Frison 1978) and the Central

Rocky Mountains (Benedict 1975) all identify a hiatus spanning from

roughly 4050 to 3050 B.C., coinciding with a portion of Antevs' (1955)

Altithermal Period. Radiocarbon dates in the LSRA do not appear to

support the hiatus.

Hoefer and Thompson (1984:12) describe a return to more mesic

conditions at ca. 3050 B.C. in southwestern Wyoming and a corresponding

human population increase. It is conceivable that the resource area may

have functioned as a haven for peoples driven out of lower elevations by

deteriorating environmental conditions. These populations may have then

returned to the abandoned plains and intermontane basins as conditions

192

improved. The question of continuity of Archaic occupation can only be

addressed through additional excavations, focusing on sites thought to

contain dates from the Altithermal hiatus and areas where radiocarbon data

gaps exist in the LSRA.

Grady (1984) provides a outline of the Archaic Stage lifeways for

northwestern Colorado and describes a seasonal round of environmental

exploitation thought to have been followed by these mobile groups. He

states that drainage basins probably provided the basic annual territory

of exploitation (1984:29). There is a lack of evidence for large

settlements, and it is assumed that Archaic activities were centered at

the band level. Small nuclear or extended family groups may have come

together at certain times of the year for activities requiring larger

groups such as antelope or rabbit hunting, or they may have converged in

localized and seasonally productive areas such as pinyon groves.

In all, 72 points from the LSRA have been attributed to the Archaic

period of occupation in the area. One half of these have been

typologically assigned to sequences from the Northwestern Plains, Plateau,

or Great Basin areas. Generally, influences from the Great Basin appear

to dominate throughout the period from Early Archaic to Late Archaic, with

an intercepting McKean/Plains influence during the Middle Archaic/Green

River phases. This instance is also reflected in Deluge Shelter deposits

and in the Northern Plateau western variant of the Green River phase.

These points are associated with 32 single component and 20

multicomponent sites. Eleven points are recorded as isolated finds.

Sixty-eight percent of the Archaic Period sites occur in present day

sagebrush communities, and 25 percent occur in pinyon juniper

193

communities. For single component Archaic sites, one- fourth are

considered open-lithic sites and the rest are open camps; each type is in

the same relative percentage hy vegetative community.

Twelve of the multicomponent sites are open camp, five are open

lithic, one is open architectural, and the rest contain historical trash

or architecture. Like single component sites, most are located in

sagebrush communities. The open-architectural site contained a Pinto

Basin type point and several rectangular sandstone structures. A metal

projectile point was also recorded at this site.

Currently, there is only a very general outline of the culture history

and lifeway for this period. The presence of Archaic Period occupation is

primarily known through site surveys. Excavations of Archaic period sites

is needed for comparative data.

Formative

Willey and Phillips (1958:146) define the Formative Stage by "the

presence of agriculture, or any other subsistence economy of comparable

effectiveness, and by the successful integration of such an economy into

well-established sedentary village life." In the LSRA this stage is

presently assigned to the Fremont culture.

The Fremont culture may have developed from the Desert Archaic

tradition by A.D. 500 in eastern Utah and some parts of northwestern

Colorado. Abandonment of the region by the Fremont falls at A.D. 1300 or

later. The Fremont culture manufactured pottery and relied to a limited

extent on maize horticulture. Pithouses, masonry houses, granaries, and

pottery reflect a divergence from the Desert Archaic cultural pattern.

194

Common point types, which include the Desert and Uinta side -notched and

Rose Spring corner-notched varieties, are generally small projectile

points considered to be arrow points. A distinctive long, narrow flaked

stone biface has been noted on a number of sites in Dinosaur National

Monument and has been named "Fremont blades" (Breternitz 1970) . Other

traits used to define the Fremont culture are distinctive moccasins,

basketry, a widely recognized style of rock art, clay figurines, the Uinta

metate, and stone balls.

The Fremont culture was originally defined by Morss (1931). This was

based on a number of excavated and surveyed sites located along the

Fremont River and Nine Mile Canyon in the late 1920s that were conducted

in conjunction with the Claf lin-Emerson expeditions into the area. To

Morss these sites seemed very similar in many respects to that of the

Basketmaker III. At Mantles Cave in Dinosaur National Monument, Burgh and

Scoggin (1948) recovered coiled basketry, dent corn, Uinta Gray pottery,

and "Fremont moccasins." They concluded that the archaeological cultures

of Mantles Cave and the Castle Park area were identical to the Fremont

culture identified by Morss. They estimated the date of occupation in the

area between A.D. 400 and A.D. 900. (1500 to 1050 B.P.).

The fairly large amount of internal variation within the Fremont

Tradition has lead to extensive discussion among archaeologists on how to

define the Fremont culture and on how to differentiate the several areal

variants. Marwitt (1970) developed a system of classification that

divided the Fremont into five regional variants, based on artifact and

architectural comparisons. The regional variants are: the Uintah

Fremont, located in the Uinta Basin of northeastern Utah and northwestern

195

Colorado; the Great Salt Lake Fremont of northern Utah; the Sevier Fremont

of west-central Utah; the Parowen Fremont of southwestern Utah; and the

San Rafael Fremont of east-central Utah. Two of Marwitt's defined

variants occur adjacent to the LSRA.

The Uinta Fremont variant is subdivided into two sequential phases,

the Cub Creek Phase, A.D. 600 (?) to A.D. 800 (?) and the later Whiterocks

Phase, A.D. (?) to A.D. 950 (?). The Cub Creek Phase is represented by a

number of sites in Dinosaur National Monument: Boundary Village (Leach

1966); Whole Place Village, Fremont Playhouse, Wagon Run (Breternitz

1970); Deluge Shelter (Leach 1970); and Mantle's Cave (Burgh and Scoggin

1948) . The Cub Creek Phase has been identified as having entirely

calcite -tempered plain Uinta Gray pottery and shallow pit dwellings or

centrally supported surface structures. The sites are limited to three to

five dwellings located on buttes or ridges overlooking floodplains. No

surface granaries are associated with this phase.

The Whiterocks Phase architecture also shows shallow pit dwellings and

circular surface structures, with the addition of wet-laid masonry and one

coursed adobe structures, some of which appear to be dwellings. Others

are described as storage structures. The phase is represented at Caldwell

Village (Ambler 1966) and Whiterocks Village (Sheilds 1967) where the

sites contained over 20 structures located in large valleys.

Ceramics include plain and surface manipulated Uinta Gray ware, with

some Anazazi pottery at Caldwell Village. Schroedl and Hogan (1975)

identified a third phase subsequent to the Whiterocks Phase called the

Book Cliffs Phase, dated A.D. 900-1200 at the Innocents Ridge Site. The

Book Cliffs sites contain oval or circular surface structures located on

high buttes or at canyon heads some distance from arable land.

196

The San Rafael Fremont variant has been identified south of the Uinta

variant. The data is scant, with no evidence for early or late phases.

Wet and dry laid stone masonry is common, along with the occurrence of

slab-lined pit houses similar to Basketmaker style. Ceramics are almost

exclusively Emery Gray and exhibit extensive surface manipulation. The

sites are small and located on high ridges, knolls and buttes above arable

land. Rock shelters were used for habitation and storage. The San Rafael

variants are dated to between A.D. 700 (?) and A.D. 1200, and were first

identified from investigations conducted at Snake Rock (Aikens 1967), Old

Woman (Taylor 1957), and other sites in and near Nine Mile Canyon, Utah.

The validity of Marwitt's Fremont regional variants have been

questioned by a number of researchers, including Madson (1979) who rejects

the trait-list classification in favor of a subsistance and settlement

pattern approach. Madson (1979) divides the Fremont culture into two and

possibly three distinct cultures—the Sevier Culture of the Great Basin,

which focused on the exploitation of marsh or riverine environments and

lacked masonry; the Fremont Culture peoples of the Colorado Plateau who

focused on upland environments, grew corn and lived in masonry structures

located on hills and benches over looking small permanent streams; and an

"unnamed Plains-derived culture" of the Uinta Basin.

These classifications are based on somewhat limited data and on how

well the Formative stage manifestations located in the LSRA depend on the

criteria used to define the Fremont. As Reed (1984) points out:

Early investigators used the trait-list method extensively toillustrate artifactual and architectural differences between theFremont and other cultural groups. After years of investigationcertain items such as stone balls, moccasins, calcite potterytempering, ornate clay figurines, one-rod -and-bundle basketry, certainvessel forms, surface manipulated ceramics and metates with secondarydepressions were recognized as being unique to the culture.

197

Based on the presence of one or more traits listed above, Fremont

cultural affiliation of Formative stage sites in the LSRA is very

questionable. At only one site, 5MF557, is there reported Fremont-type

ceramics. This lack of ceramics is quite surprising, considering the

proximity of the project area to pottery producing areas deeper into

"Fremont Country" and the Anazazi center to the south. Even if the

Fremont or Formative stage culture present in the area did not produce

pottery, and assuming ceramics were desirable items, acquisition of

pottery through trade networks would have been possible. The other

described traits are as yet unreported in the LSRA.

Madsen's (1979) modified trait-list definition of the Fremont

tradition includes a corn horticultural subsistence pattern, which is

supplemented by wild floral and faunal foodstuffs; small settlements

located near or overlooking permanent streams; and masonry surface

structures and stone- lined pit dwellings. Despite the apparent vagueness

of the definition, only one site, 5MF841, may fit this class. The site

contains what was described as a storage cist on a small terrace

overlooking the Green River. This site may be a pit house structure. No

"classic" Fremont architecture, village sites or evidence for Fremont

horticulture have been recorded, however.

Twenty-one sites have been affiliated with Fremont occupation in the

LSRA, nine of which base this affiliation on the recovery of Rose Spring

Series and Uintah side notched points. These sites are scattered

throughout the resource area and are not associated with any of the other

Fremont attributes. The presence of these points could be representative

of Fremont (or Formative) exploitation or "forays" into uplands for

198

outlying resources away from serai -sedentary camp sites. However,

affiliating Fremont sites by surface finds of projectile points with

typologies that range pre- and post-Formative period is risky. This

"marginal activity" theory of land use has been advanced by Gordon (1982)

for areas peripheral to Fremont settlements in Douglas Creek; but without

a "tiraemarker" diagnostic such as pottery, there is no way of knowing who

was actually exploiting the areas, or when.

Fremont pottery identified as Turner-Gray, Cisco Variety was

identified by Jennings and Daniels (1976) in the Savory Pothook area along

the state line between Wyoming and Colorado.

Nine sites in the LSRA are attributed to the Fremont, based on rock-

art styles. Sites exhibiting petrograph motifs believed to represent the

Fremont culture provide the only culturally and temporally diagnostic

indications reported as yet for the LSRA. Eight of the sites are

concentrated in or near Brown's Park, along Irish and Vermillion canyons,

and the Green River. Cole (1983) has identified several of these rock art

sites as containing elements attributed to the Classic Vernal rock-art

styles for the Uinta Fremont. Radiocarbon dates only confirm evidence of

occupation during the Fremont period, but no clear information on the

cultural background of the people inhabiting the area is presently

available.

In Brown's Park, numerous unrecorded storage cists have been reported

that contain corn imprints or cobs, and three of the Fremont affiliated

rock art sites are adjacent to bedrock metates. With the arable

floodplain of the Green River, associated storage cists, and proximity to

the Uinta Fremont groups to the south and west, it is very possible that

199

this area was heavily used during the Formative stage. Rock art along

major corridors such as Irish Canyon and Vermillion Canyon may also

indicate an extention of the influence one way or the other (or both ways)

between the Wyoming Basin Plains and the Uinta areas. This potential

Fremont "hub" in Brown's Park may be the sedentary base from which hunting

forays were launched, penetrating eastward into the LSRA.

In addition to the rock-art sites, open camps, sheltered camps, and

open-lithic sites are attributable to the Formative Period. Fifteen open-

architectural sites are recorded in the LSRA but are not affiliated with

any cultural period. Future investigation of these sites may reveal a

Fremont affiliation. Table 24 summarizes the types of sites affiliated

with this period.

In the Piceance Basin, the Fremont occupation has been associated with

the use of rock shelters as domestic sites throughout the entire

occupational period, as well as the presence of Fremont ceramics and

Fremont-style rock art. Weber et al. (197 7) suggests that the Piceance

Basin was utilized as a hunting and gathering area by the Fremont and that

evidence for year-round occupation of the basin is slight. Grady (1980)

elaborates on this hypothesis and asserts the possibility that Fremont and

Archaic manifestations may only be a differing set of seasonal economic

activities employed by the same people. The seasonal round, in this case,

is modified slightly by adding spring planting of corn to the

lowland/spring quest for food. Next was the highland/ summer deer harvest,

followed by fall pinyon harvest, followed by movement back to the valley

to gather the corn and settle in for the winter. This sequence, of

course, assumes that corn was harvested when ripe and not green, and that

200

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the area supports an attractive pinyon resource. The similarities of

archaeological remains exhibited by various cultural and temporal groups

following a similar nomadic or semi-nomadic Archaic tradition subsistence

strategy— in this case followed perhaps by Fremont populations part of the

year—adds to the ambiguity of differentiating with certainty possible

Fremont sites.

A local variant of the Fremont culture has been identified by Creasman

(1981) in the Douglas Creek Drainage. Subsistence was based on maize

horticulture supplemented by hunting and gathering, and this reliance is

thought to indicate that the variant was never fully sedentary. Garden

plots were grown near the mouths of side canyons and on the margins of

alluvial fans. Architecture varied from one- or two room pit structures

located on low rises overlooking arable land to wet-land masonry

structures located on promotories. Bee -hive -shaped storage granaries and

rock shelters were utilized along with Uinta Grey and Emery Grey ceramics.

Reed (1984), reviewing the question of the Formative Stage in

west-central Colorado, offers an alternative to ascribing Formative

Tradition remains to regional variants or subcultures of the Fremont or

Anazazi cultures. He suggests that the sites represent in situ

development from an Archaic technocomplex where Archaic Tradition peoples

adopted certain Formative stage lifeways, as need for food production

arose. Perhaps cultivated foods only supplemented wild food collection,

and certain items such as pottery were acquired through trade with Anazazi

and Fremont culture areas, which in turn exposed them to various

architectural styles.

202

Problems with defining Formative type sites and Fremont affiliation

can only be resolved through further investigation and expansion of that

data base and local definition. Radiocarbon dates from this period show

the most activity within the LSRA was from this time period than from any

other. Grady (1984) points out that, in general, Formative stage sites

tend to be concentrated in relatively few areas such as Brown's Park,

Douglas Creek, Missouri Creek, Southern Blue Mountain, and Dinosaur

National Monument. Colo-Wyo sites excavated along the Yampa River near

Craig indicate heavy occupation during this time period but cannot be

affiliated conclusively with the Fremont Culture (C. Jennings 1984).

Questions of Fremont affiliation with other prehistoric cultures

remain. Breternitz (1970a) asserts a possible origin of the Fremont from

the Great Basin Desert culture, but Wormington (1955) contends that the

Fremont arose out of a Desert Archaic substrate with some Anazazi

influence. Berry and Berry (1976) propose that Basketmaker II expansion

into the area following a cultural hiatus formed the base from which Uinta

and San Rafael variants derived. A Plains orientation is proposed by

Aikens (1966). He maintains that the Fremont Culture is a result of a

westward expansion of northwestern Plains people around A.D. 500, and that

ca. A.D. 1400 to 1600 the Fremont were pushed out of Utah back into the

Plains by Shoshonean expansion, thus becoming the Dismal River Plains

groups.

The earliest suggestion by Steward (1933) about the origin of the

"Northern Periphery" cultures in western Colorado and extreme eastern Utah

is supported by Schreodl (1976). Schroedl (1976) points out that if

Cowboy Caves and other sites represent the terminal Archaic phase on the

203

northern portion of the Colorado Plateau, the similarities between the

Archaic artifact assemblages and those from Fremont culture "type sites"

(Morss 1931) are too great to be coincidental. In the LSRA there are no

radio carbon date gaps of more than 200 years from 610 B.C. to A.D. 1055,

suggesting an Archaic/ Fremont (?) continuity.

Whatever its origin, Fremont horticultural adaptation and its unique

material culture have been hypothesized to have come to an end in the LSRA

around A.D. 1055. Fremont occupation in Douglas Creek drainage ranged

from A.D. 500 to A.D. 1400 (Creasman 1981); but just west of the creek,

later dates from the Texas Creek Overlook site of A.D. 1520 + 50 years

(Creasman and Gardner 1984) and the Edge Site (La Point et al. 1981) of

A.D. 1430 raise many questions concerning the longevity of Fremont

occupation in the area. Theories concerning a drought around A.D. 1250,

which may have prevented maize horticulture and competition with

Shoshoneans, have been advanced, but to date none has been substantiated.

Grady (1980) suggests that this does not necessarily mean that the Fremont

abandoned northwestern Colorado, but that a shift from semi-sedentary

horticulturalists to year-round hunting and gathering lifeways may have

occurred. This may also help to explain the long duration of the Archaic

period lifestyle in the Piceance Basin (Grady 1980) described by C.

Jennings (1975), shedding new light on the possibility of the transition

from Fremont to prehistoric Numic culture.

With Buckles' (1971) proposal of continuity between Archaic

Uncompahgre complex and Ute historical forage patterns, the interface

between the Uncompahgre and the Fremont cultures and their possible

204

contemporaneity pose further unsolved questions. Gunnerson (1969)

suggests that the Fremont gave rise to the Plateau Shoshonean groups that

were residing in the LSRA at the time of earliest European contact. Data

from Dinosaur National Monument is considered by Breternitz (1970) to be

supportive of a Fremont to Ute or Shoshone transition as well. Berry,

however, states that although the Numic-speaking Ute may have been

contemporaneous with the Fremont, the groups were generally unrelated.

More research is needed to resolve these problems of social

interaction and culture change, as well as questions concerning

environmental adaptation. It is probably time to reassess the situation

and investigate the possibility of contemporaneous or subsequent

occupation by Fremont and various aceramic groups. Pre-Numic may become a

more descriptive term for these prehistoric groups who may not have

participated in what might be described as the Fremont or Formative

episode.

Protohistoric Ute-Shoshone/Late Prehistoric

Based on studies in glottochronology, it is thought that Numic

(Shoshonean) speakers, ancestors of the Shoshone, Paiute, Gosuite, and

Ute, entered the Great Basin from the Southern Sierra Nevadas around A.D.

950 (Wright 1978) and arrived in the eastern Great Basin by A.D. 1150 to

A.D. 1250 (J. Jennings 1978). Unfortunately, there is slight if any

support from other branches of science as yet for these linguistic

hypotheses. Other archaeologists arrived at opposite conclusions, finding

evidence of a long Great Basin occupation (J. Jennings 1978).

205

Ethnographer Anne Cooke Smith, after an exhaustive analysis of Great Basin

folklore, found striking uniformities between the Numic speakers but no

migration myths (Steward 1966).

Nonetheless, the "Numic spread" is widely accepted and the traditional

Numic components, small triangular (Desert side-notched and Cottonwood)

projectile points and crude, coil-scrape pottery, mark the time period

during which the Numic peoples first appeared in the Great Basin (A.D.

1300 to A.D. 1860).

The apparent rapid spread of Numic peoples into the Great Basin at the

expense and subsequent displacement of "Pre-Numic" groups has been

analyzed by Bettinger and Baumhoff (1982). They hypothesize a difference

in subsistence strategies between the two groups, based on the

differential reliance on large game and small seeds and differential

investments in travel and processing times. The Great Basin "traveller"

strategy, attributed to Pre-Numic groups, maximized the procurement of

large game and minimized the procurement of small seeds. The Numic

"processor" strategy maximized both, but with a greater reliance on

seeds. Replacement of the Pre-Numic groups was the direct result of

larger populations sustained by the processor strategy. This replacement

may have been helped along by the introduction of the bow and arrow, which

led to the overexploitation of ungulates around A.D. 600 and perhaps the

decimation of game stocks by the European introduction of epizootics as

early as A.D. 1540 (Grant et al. 1968).

This explanation may have also had a contributing factor to the

hypothesized dislodge of Fremont peoples. Fremont peoples, dependent on

specific large game as well as limited horticulture, would be just as

easily overwhelmed by the successful processor strategy as their Pre-Numic

neighbors.

206

Bettinger and Baumhoff (1982) support their hypotheses with

archaeological evidence from rock-art sites, location of projectile

points, and contrasts in basketry styles. Further research and review of

archaeological evidence is necessary to substantiate or refute these

interpretations. Implications of these interpretations will have a

far-reaching effect on the presently held framework of chronology and

subsistence patterning in the resource area.

Most of what is known about these early Numic speakers is from

historical sources, because few sites from this period have been

investigated and as J. Jennings (1978:235) describes, "The non-perishable

material culture of the Utah Shoshoni speakers—Ute, Southern Paiute,

Gosuite—is so scanty and nondistinctive that almost no archaeological

evidence of the tribes or their lifeway can be gathered except through

ethnographic and linguistic sources."

The presence of two groups of Ute Indians on Colorado's west slope was

recorded by a Spanish exploring party led by Dominguez and Escalante in

1776. The Uncompahgre Plateau was occupied by the Yutas Tabehuaches, and

the Colorado River Valleys were occupied by the Yutas Sabauganus (Bolton

1951; Steward 1974). The extreme northwestern part of Colorado north of

the Yampa River was occupied by the enemy Comanche Yamparica, a Shoshone

group.

The identity of the Comanche Yampanicas in northwestern Colorado is

still in question, however. Stewart (1942), during extensive personal

interviews with living Ute Indians, identified one group, listed as "White

River Utes" living on the Uintah Reservation who call themselves

207

Yampakan. They gave their former home as the area occupied by the

Comanche Yampanicas.

The Shoshone Indian groups' homeland is traditionally north of the

Uintah range. Lowie and Stewart have the general opinion that the term

"Comanche" as used by the Utes simply meant "enemy." Although the Utes

are of Shoshonean stock, it is unlikely that peaceful relations always

existed, and it is probable that Shoshone peoples hunted in the region and

thus the area was a point of contact on some occasions.

Father Escalante called the Green River the "Rio de San Buenaventura,"

noting that this was the accepted boundary between the Ute and Comanche

nations (Chavez 1976). The boundaries separating the Ute from the

Shoshone along the Yampa River and the crest of the Uinta Mountains have

been confirmed by Ute and Shoshone many times since first described by

Fort Bridger Indian Agent John Wilson in 1849 (Stewart 1961). Stewart

interprets rock-art panel 5MF281, located along the Yampa River south of

Craig near Hayden, as possibly marking a boundary between the Shoshone to

the north and the Ute to the South (Breternitz 1971). The panel depicts

five armed riders with shields and spears against a lone rider. This may

indicate possible intercultural strife or limited warfare.

From 1700 to 1750, Ute and the Comanche Shoshone were apparently

allies and were reported to be hunting and raiding together on the High

Plains and trading with the Pueblo Indians and Spanish along the Rio

Grande (Stewart 1974). After 1750, the Ute and Comanche were no longer

aligned, and the Ute, with help from the Spaniards and Pueblo Indians,

forced the Comanches farther south. The Utes by 1850 had pushed the

208

Comanche Shoshone northward into Wyoming (Steward 1974). While the area

north of the Yampa remained a common hunting ground shared by the Ute,

Shoshone, Crow, and Sioux, the Ute dominated the area south of the Yampa

to Gunnison, and from the Green River in Utah east to Middle Park in the

Rocky Mountains (Steward 1974:125).

Historical research conducted by Eddy et al. (1982) for the excavation

of 5MF605 in Brown's Park described numerous references to ethnographic

groups in the area in accounts left by American fur trappers and

explorers. Brown's Park served as a point of contact between native

tribes and Euro-American trappers during the height of the Rocky Mountain

fur trade. Lewis and Clark were told in 1805 by the Lemhi Snakes that the

Green River country was the home of the Southern Shoshone or Snake tribe.

Willaim Ashley noted Shoshone winter camps just above Vermillion Creek

consisting of several thousand Indians in 1825. That the Shoshone used

Brown's Park as a winter camp ground was also confirmed by members of the

Peoria Party in 1939 (Hafen and Hafen 1955).

Other tribes also visited the area, no doubt because of the trading

center in Brown's Park. The Arapaho, Ute and Navaho have all been

mentioned in various memoirs of the area (Inman 1897; Hamilton 1951;

Mattes 1966). E. Willard Smith wrote of a battle between white settlers

and a Sioux war party in 1839 along the Little Snake River (Hafen and

Hafen 1955). The Ute continued to visit the park as late as the 1870s

(Willis 1952).

Late Prehistoric sites in the area are characterized by small

side-notched and corner-notched projectile points and distinctive thick

209

walled "Shoshone" pottery. Later sites have standing wickiups, small

conical brush structures. Caves were also used as shelters. These Late

Prehistoric ancestors to ethnographic Indian groups practiced a nomadic

lifestyle similar to the previous Archaic period. Noting a type of micro-

and macro-banding that was flexible enough to make use of the varied

resources, Steward (1938) describes the ethnographic subsistence pattern

as seasonal movements that exploited combinations of locally available

plants and, to a lesser extent, animal resources.

The acquisition of the horse and European trade goods by Numic groups

some time soon after A.D. 1640 led to a rapid change among these

previously pedestrian hunting and gathering groups. Southern Utes,

enslaved by the Spanards, took large numbers of horses north with them

after the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. This action introduced the use of the

horse into the Northern Plains (Stewart 1966). The most likely route they

would have taken would have been through Colorado (Stewart 1966). An

essential aspect of Stewart's hypothesis is that the Indian cultures

unfamiliar with horses were more likely to eat them than to ride them.

Utes who worked for the Spanish by force or choice, however, learned to

break and ride horses and could rapidly assimilate them as a useful

element of their cultural pattern.

With the horse, hunting ranges expanded to include bison, social

organization changed, and interactions with neighboring groups were not

always peaceful. Winter encampments swelled to several thousand Indians,

as documented for Brown's Park, and included different groups such as the

Shoshone, Ute and Navaho (Hafen and Hafen 1955). New methods of hunting,

210

which yielded greater wealth in foods and hides, enabled people to live in

large and comparatively permanent groups. Winter settlement camps,

previously determined by the location of cached foods, could now be

located in central locations with foods transported there. Use of the

horse as a beast of burden also promoted the use of the tipi. Before the

Utes became equestrian, they killed buffalo from time to time from small

herds in the Rocky Mountains, along the Green River, and in the Great

Basin—but nowhere was the buffalo an important food source. With the

horse, long excursions to the plains across the Rocky Mountains were made

to hunt buffalo at the risk of encounters with enemies along the way

(Smith 1974:54). Late Protohistoric sites often contain trade items such

as glass buttons, beads, and metal projectile points and knives.

The Historic ethnographic populations remained in the area until their

expulsion in the early 1870s following the Meeker Massacre. Although the

later part of this period is well documented in northwest Colorado, many

questions concerning the origins, migrations and intercultural

relationships still exist.

Few late Prehistoric/Protohistoric sites have been recorded for the

LSRA, in spite of historical accounts suggesting a rather intensive

occupation. This may, in part, be due to the difficulty in recognizing

these sites, their reuse of earlier artifacts, or possibly such an abrupt

change in settlement patterns that occurred with the introduction of

horses that base camps were located in areas less determined by proximity

to exploitable resources (Reed 1984:42). Forty-two sites have been

211

affiliated with the Late Prehistoric Period, based on the presence of

undetermined Late Prehistoric points, Cottonwood points, Rose Spring

points, Desert side-notched points, and metal points. Eight sites are

isolated finds, 24 are open camps, and the rest are open architectural

or open lithic. Three radio-carbon dates, A.D 1615 and A.D. 1575 further

support the presence of some protohistoric group in the LSRA, possibly

prior to the acquistion of the horse.

Four sites have been recorded as possessing "Shoshone" pottery.

Shoshonean or Intermountain tradition pottery appeared on the Northwestern

Plains during the Late Prehistoric period, and is thus a valuable time

marker. Thirteen sites contain late prehistoric material as well as

diagnostic points from other time periods.

Only one site, 5MF840, contains structural features and is affiliated

with the Late Prehistoric. The site contains 10 stone circles. One Late

Prehistoric point was found on the surface. Meyer and Riches (1979) refer

to the site, located in Brown's Park, as the Flynn Bottom Site. Nine

other sites contain stone circles or enclosures, but no diagnostic

artifacts have been found associated with them.

Stone "circles" are commonly associated with Plains tipi traditions

and are thought to be all that remains after the removal or disintegration

of various kinds of super structures. Kehoe (1960), based on studies on

the Blackfoot reservation, suggests that the stones were used to hold down

lodge covers. Horizontally laid logs secured by slabs of stone creating a

dome-shaped circular structure has been tentatively affiliated to the

212

Shoshone by Frison (1978:51). Smith (1974:39) describes the construction

of tipis by the Northern Ute but states that all her informants denied the

use of stones for weights.

A stone enclosure found at 5MF856 is associated with two points from

widely separated periods—a Pinto Basin and late Prehistoric points. Also

recovered were historical trade items such as a metal point, beads, and

glass. No wikiup structures are on record for the LSRA.

Numerous rock art panels depicting horses and mounted "warriors" have

been found throughout the resource area. Of the 33 sites containing rock

art recorded in the LSRA, over one-third contained some sort of equestrian

art.

213

IX.

RESEARCH DIRECTIONS AND MANAGEMENT SUGGESTIONS

In the last 10 years, there has been an explosion in commercial

mineral, petrochemical and construction programs in the area and, as a

result, a considerable amount of cultural resource work. Vast quantities

of sites have been recorded, and considerable information has been

gathered, but excavation and problem- oriented investigations have been

few. Even today, with over 1,400 sites recorded, our understanding of the

culture history and traditions of the area is incomplete, and chronometric

control has barely been established.

It can be seen from the previous sections that there are considerable

questions that remain unanswered concerning the culture history and nature

of prehistoric occupation in the LSRA. Prehistoric occupation of the area

has been divided into four stages- -Paleo -Indian, Archaic, Formative, and

Protohistoric. Paleo-Indian points have been found in the resource area

as surface finds in open-camp and open-lithic sites. Despite these finds,

pre-Holecene occupation is poorly understood. Archaic occupation at

different periods is typologically similar to Colorado Plateau cultures,

and the Plains Archaic lifeways appear to be comparable to Desert Archaic

traditions. Haituses described in the Great Basin and Altithermal Plains

are not indicated in the LSRA.

The Formative Period is presently undefined for the resource area,

although there is a definite occupation of the area during this period.

The last period is represented by the presence of Numic-speaking groups

described in historical references but poorly understood in terms of

214

archaeological material. What has become most apparent is the possibility

that archaeological evidence in the LSRA may contribute to the

understanding of surrounding cultural chronologies of the Plateau, Plains

and Great Basin by providing the link to data gaps and hiatuses described

in those areas. Answers or vital information applicable to these "gaps"

might just be found in what is considered previously as "marginal" and

"peripheral" areas, where changes or new adaptations may have had their

invention.

Based on the information accumulated in this Class I overview and

those defined by Grady (1984), there are a myriad of potential research

questions open for investigation and direction of problem-oriented

projects. A set of four research question domains may be presented for

consideration. These domains include the following:

1) Improvements of local chronological framework, better understanding

of early cultural traditions and their transitions. Questions of the

Fremont presence. Hand in hand with this aspect is the acquisition of

chronometric data and the establishment of a well dated projectile-point

typology.

2) Paleodemography, especially during hiatuses described in

surrounding regions.

3) Prehistoric land use as it relates to subsistence and settlement

systems through time and relationships between various subsistence

procurement systems, e.g., horticulture and gathering.

4) Paleoenvironmental conditions, both local and regional.

215

5) External influences and relationships to adjacent areas -e.g. , the

Great Basin, Plains; Fremont and Anazazi evidence; trade relationships,

perhaps traceable through raw toolstone material.

Use of these research questions will greatly aid and facilitate the

evaluation of significance of cultural resources. As pointed out by Raab

and Klinger (1977) and Nickens (1980), cultural resources must be

evaluated for their historical and scientific importance relative to the

required determination of National Register significance. Use of these

regional research questions not only complement large-scale cultural

resource management projects operating under specific research designs,

but provide problem domains with which to examine the numerous small

cultural resource management investigations that may lack well planned

research designs.

These are necessarily very broadly oriented problem domains, but they

can be addressed from a regional perspective by both small and large scale

projects. Every site recorded, singly on a well pad or within a block

survey, may potentially contribute data to these domains at the time of

recording or at a later date as additional comparable information has been

compiled on a regional basis. These problem domains can be further

subdivided into dozens of specific questions that could be answered as the

data base grows. These problems are also meant to be dynamic as new sites

are recorded or excavated, and research directions can be reassessed and

channeled.

The future of archaeological research in the LSRA, an area

experiencing extensive development of energy resources, depends on the

proper and reasonable management of public cultural resource properties.

2U

Every effort should be made to maximize the amount of information

gathered, and the significance of that information be evaluated with

respect to current explicit research designs and future needs (Jones and

Mackay 1980:157). Current research questions must be considered so that

effort spent gathering the information contributes to the understanding of

the prehistory of the area and that the remains of these nonrenewable

resources are used to their fullest extent. By determining the

significance of the resources, protective channels such as NRHP

nominations could be better utilized.

The first step toward this goal in the cultural resource management

process includes the proper identification of the distribution of

resources and evaluation regarding their age, nature, type, and

significance in terms of historical preservation needs. In order to move

in this direction, it is important to ensure that investigators working in

the area gather comparable, relevant data. Information categories

identified for sites in the automated data base in conjunction with the

narrative should be utilized to standardize this data. Site size,

assemblage, and environment are extremely important if the site data is to

be used to test future subsistence, settlement or predictive location

models. For this reason, it is suggested that all researchers are

encouraged to record site environmental situation, size, and location;

carefully map features and artifact concentrations; and describe in detail

artifacts present. With the impending BLM noncollection policy, this last

task becomes critical. Measurements, outlines, and photographs of

diagnostic artifacts should be required. Photographing of rock-art sites

should also be encouraged. Information on environmental situation should

217

also be recorded for negative surveys in an effort to compile data on

where sites do not occur.

This information is currently compiled and updated through the

automated REX data base. Perhaps the most important and useful

contribution of this Class I effort has been the generation of an

extensive, flexible and easily accessible computer file containing

detailed information on the cultural resources of the area. The

organization of this data provides accurate information on the density of

resources and the distribution of site types of varying significance,

information critical to management and planning. Managers need to know

why and where resources are located to determine their scientific and

legal value, as well as protect these finite cultural values.

Human systems are patterned, and these patterns can be determined if

appropriate questions are asked of the data. These questions include

interrelated problems such as location strategy, subsistence systems, and

site catchment. Site location strategy questions also concern site

patterning in terms of spatial distribution of sites. It follows that a

research goal for the BLM could center around the need for additional

Class II and III inventories to further our understanding and to increase

the amount of primary data from which these questions could be approached

and from which possible predictive models of site location may be

generated.

As noted, there are many gaps in our knowledge of prehistoric peoples'

utilization of the LSRA. This is in part because such a small percentage

of the lands comprising the LSRA have been systematically explored for

archaeological resources; and the surveys that have been completed have

218

been concentrated in energy-rich and development areas- -the Williams Fork

Mountains for coal, the Powder Wash area for oil and gas, and Savery

Pothook and Juniper -Cross areas for water projects. Exact data,

therefore, is inherently biased toward the prehistoric exploitation of the

Williams Forks, a portion of the Yampa River corridor, and the oil fields

of Powder Wash and Hiawatha camps. These areas constitute but a small

portion of the total range of environmental possibilities within the

resource area, and our knowledge of prehistoric cultural adaptation to the

LSRA as a whole cannot be considered complete. It is, therefore,

important that future archaeological investigations focus on the

unexplored areas of the resource area such as the upland regions of

Douglas, Cross, and Cold Spring mountains; Diamond Breaks; the Vermillion

and Sand Wash lowlands; and the Great Divide area. Since the resource

area exhibits such environmental diversity, the area should be subdivided

into physiographic areas based on drainage systems and then each studied

in terms of subsistence and settlement patterning. This would not only

make the models more effective but also shed light on resource

exploitation and settlement through time. The most economical and

scientifically meaningful way to accomplish this goal is to implement a

stratified random sample of these areas at a sampling level of at least 10

percent. A stratified random sample of these areas would provide the best

overall picture of the cultural resources of the region and prehistoric

adaptations to the area. This information, taken in concert with the

existing inventory data, would provide the necessary data from which

levels of significance of the resource can be evaluated relative to

219

the proposed research designs. Models accounting for significance level,

resource density and site type could then be constructed.

There is another type of inventory of rather pressing concern to

energy developers, federal land managers, and archaeologists. The

energy-rich regions of Powder Wash and Hiawatha Camp have been subjected

to numerous small well-pad surveys conducted at various levels of

intensity. As a result, questions concerning resource densities, type and

locations have not been approached, while, one by one, the resources are

either avoided or "mitigated." A Class III block survey centered in this

area would provide a valuable overview of the resources in the area and

aid cultural resource managers in designing areal management strategies

before the inevitable destruction of the in situ cultural resource data

base through energy development. In the long run, it would be

economically expedient to both energy developers and managers to know

where the sites are located before development plans, and with both

parties contributing, perhaps energy and funds, promote a sense of

cooperation among all involved, but not at the expense of the resource.

The Brown's Park area is experiencing a similar pressure, but from

another source. Recreation in the park has brought more and more visitors

who are exploring the commonly known archaeological sites and, at times,

damaging these resources. Many of these sites are not formally recorded.

The area is of tremendous archaeological value because of the ideal

environmental circumstance that attracted prehistoric populations and the

probability of locating evidence for Fremont occupation. This is

especially important in view of problems of the origns of "Fremont"

220

culture and the Madsen-Berry hypothesis of an Eastern Utah and Western

Colorado locus of Fremont occupation. This is especially important in

view of problems of the origins of "Fremont" culture and the Madsen-Berry

hypothesis of an Eastern Utah and Western Colorado locus of Fremont

occupation. A. Class III survey of the mountains flanking the park would

provide many answers concerning the prehistoric occupation of the region

and offer greater protection to the resources. Upon the evaluation of the

resources discovered during the survey, interpretation centers could be

designed for the education of the public.

Managers should view cultural resources as a nonrenewable land value

that can illuminate past and present exploitative land-use patterns.

Cultural values that will not be directly affected by land-altering

activities and, therefore, require no formal mitigative measures, should

be preserved for future study. Often cultural resources are located in

areas of special concern for other natural science disciplines such as

botany, range, geology, and wildlife. Protective measures such as

Research Natural Area (RNA) , Outstanding Natural Area (ONA) and Areas of

Critical Environmental Concern (ACEC) designations, which involve a multi-

disciplinary justification, can be further supported by the documentation

of the presence of archaeological resources. As these areas are proposed,

every effort should be made to include cultural resources as a

consideration.

Finally, it is suggested that problem-oriented excavation in the

resource area be encouraged. Since there are a great number of sites

221

being recorded and the interpretation of the surface remains inevitably

done by comparison to excavated, stratigraphically controlled sites, it is

extremely important that comparative excavation data be generated within

the resource area. Very few sites have actually been thoroughly

investigated in the study area and as apparent in previous sections of the

report, comparative data drawn from surrounding areas has been difficult.

Only through excavation can questions such as regional chronology,

transition between traditions, "intrusion," and paleoenvironment be

addressed.

In summary, the LSRA contains a wealth of cultural resources and

considerable room for additional cultural resource inquiry exists.

Efforts should be made to coordinate the cultural resource management

programs of various government agencies and contractors in an effort to

enhance the productivity and comparability of research and protection of

cultural resources in the area. The LSRA has great potential for

contributing to our aesthetic, historic and cultural appreciation of the

past; and as historians, anthropologists, and cultural resource managers,

it is our responsibility to see that we utilize these cultural resources

to their fullest potential.

222

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246

Appendix A

Major Cultural Resource Management Projects

Reservoir Projects

1975, 1976Reference : J. Jennings and Daniels 1976

SponsorinR Institution : National Park ServiceGeneral Location : Savery-Pot Hook area along the Little Snake River inColorado and WyomingType and Purpose of Project : Class III, 7100 acres. Archaeologicalinvestigations of lands and canal routes included in a major irrigationproject.

Project Results : 69 archaeological sites were recorded, ranging in antiquityfrom the Early Middle Prehistoric Period to the Late Prehistoric Period, anda single site was attributed to Fremont influence by the presence of TurnerGray, Cisco variety pottery. The historic period was also wellrepresented. The archaeology of the Little Snake region was defined asclosely related to that of the Northern Plains and Dinosaur NationalMonument. This is a preliminary report of the findings - the project wassubsequently cancelled and no final report was submitted.

1980Reference : Chase 1981SponsorinR Institution : Laboratory of Public Archaeology, Colorado RiverWater Conservation DistrictGeneral Location : Juniper-Cross MountainType and Purpose of Project: Class II, 1752 acres. Sample survey of 12% of

the total area conducted to determine cultural resource parameters of twopotential reservoir sites.Project Results : 49 prehistoric, 23 historic, and 4 multi-component siteswere recorded. A scheme of parallel systematically selected 100-meter widetransects, oriented perpendicular to the Yampa River, and extending from theriver to the proposed high water line were used to sample the project areaand test: 1) the general premise that site location was constrained by waterand the majority of known sites were located within 250 m of a waterresource; and 2) the average site size was 13 75 m . The survey testrevealed that the site area was much larger, averaging 7.67 acres or

31,058.3 nr , and average site distance from water was 138.62 m. Projectedsite densities for the Juniper Reservoir area derived from the sample surveyis 317 sites, or from one site per 45 to 6 7.6 acres. Cross Mountainprojected densities were slightly lower with a total of 271 sites and onesite per 27.4 to 41.4 acres indicated.

Twenty-one diagnostic artifacts were described and classified into 17

morphological types. Human occupation from the Paleo-Indian period wasindicated by a problematical unfinished Folsom projectile point and bisonantiquus bone tool. The early Archaic period was unrepresented, the MiddleArchaic was represented by two Duncan-type projectile points, and the LateArchaic to Protohistoric periods were represented by a series of projectilepoints, which were not positively identified.

247

1981Reference : Arthur and Collins 1982SponsorinR Institution : Laboratory of Public Archaeology, Colorado RiverWater Conservation District.General Location : Juniper-Cross Mountain reservoirType and Purpose of Project : Class II, sample survey of 11.5% of poolsareas, 3136 acres. Goal of 1981 work was to provide addtional data thatwould be directly comparable to the previous study (Chase 1981)Pro.ject Results : Transects, 100 meters in width, and of varying lengthcomparable to the 1980 reconnaissance effort, were used by spacing the newtransects on either side and parallel to the previously examined transects.Within the two proposed reservoir sites, 35 open-lithic sites, 25

prehistoric open-camp sites, 3 historic sites, and 4 multi-component siteswere recorded. Diagnostic artifacts were typed morphologically and comparedto dated resources from surrounding areas. The cultural chronology derivedfrom this study indicated prehistoric occupation of the project areacommencing during the Early Plains Archaic represented by a projectile-pointbase reminicent of the Cody Complex from the Plains. Sites attributed tothe Middle Plains Archaic were more heavily represented with projectile-point styles, very similar to the McKean Complex of the Plains, the ApexComplex of the Front Range, and the Desert Culture of the Great Basin. TheLate Plains Archaic was not represented in the diagnostic artifactcollection. The Late Prehistoric period was found lacking in Fremontaffiliated artifacts despite known occurrences in the immediate vicinity of

the project area. Site locations tended to be on terrace edges and

interfluvial ridges at a distance from the floodplain rather than near the

river.

Coal Lease Projects

1975Reference: Lischka 1975

SponsorinR Institution : University of ColoradoGeneral Location : 22 airmiles southwest of Craig and routes along the Yampa,

the Williams Fork River, and along lies Mountain.

Type and Purpose of Project : Class III survey, 2,880 acres. Cultural and

paleontological resources inventory and evaluation of the proposed railroad

corridors and coal mine.Project Result : The cultural resources investigation recorded a total of 10

historic sites, 62 prehistoric sites, and 65 isolated finds. Distinctive

prehistoric occupation patterns, noted by clusters of sites, were located

along the major river systems in areas with extensive bottomlands. The

study area was occupied at least as early as 5000 B.P., and subsequent

occupation appears to have been fairly continuous with all horizons

represented. The relative density of the occupation during any particularhorizon was not determined due to the lack of sufficient cultural material.

All the prehistoric sites recorded were assigned to the generalized Western

Archaic cultural tradition—no evidence was found of Fremont occupation.

248

1975-1976

Reference : Arthur 1977

Sponsoring Institution : Laboratory of Public Archaeology, Bureau of LandManagementGeneral Location : Williams Fork Mountains, Craig-Hayden region south of theYampa River valley.Type and Purpose of Pro.ject : Class II, 124,833 acres. Archaeologicalreconnaissance of proposed Federal coal lease tracts, in order to estimatethe nature and extent of cultural resources in the areaProject Results : Descriptive analysis of the data was undertaken due to thelittle previous work done in the area. Sampling technique was based on theenvironmental characteristics of physiographic conditions (slope and aspect)and the nature and density of local vegetation represented in each 40-acreunit in a tract. Based on the survey data, it was surmised that the YampaRiver Basin and Williams Fork Mountains have been utilized by aboriginalgroups since at least 5000 B.C. The Early Middle and Late MiddlePrehistoric periods are well represented, although no evidence for the EarlyPrehistoric Period or Paleo-Indian occupation was found. Limited evidenceof Fremont occupation was noted. Late Prehistoric and Early HistoricPeriods are thought to be affiliated with Ute and Shoshone groups, whohistorically are known to have utilized the area.

1977Reference : Williams and Jennings 197 7

Sponsoring Institution : Laboratory of Public Archaeology, Bureau of LandManagementGeneral Location : South of the town of Lay, Moffat CountyType and Purpose of Project : Class III, 1,700 acres. Archaeological surveyof coal reserves.Project Results : One historic and one prehistoric site were recorded alongwith 15 isolated finds. The prehistoric site was dated to the LatePrehistoric Period by diagnostic projectile point comparison with similartypes found in Dinosaur National Monument.

1977

Reference : Williams and Jennings 197 7

Sponsoring Institution : Laboratory of Public Archaeology, BLMGeneral Location : Southwest of Craig, ColoradoType and Purpose of Project : Class III, 1,120 acres. A proposed UtahInternational Craig underground project was surveyed for cultural resources.Project Results : One archaeological site and three isolated finds wererecorded. No diagnostic artifacts were recovered.

1979Reference : Grand River Institute 1979Sponsoring Institution : Grand River Institute, Bureau of Land ManagementGeneral Location : Northwest of Craig, ColoradoType and Purpose of Project : Class III, 1,810 acres. Cultural resourcesurvey for proposed strip mineProject Result : Four archaeological sites and 20 isolated finds wereidentified. One site contained a pottery scatter resembling Shoshonepottery from northwestern Colorado.

249

1979Reference : Grand River Institute 1979SponsorinR Institution : Grand River InstituteGeneral Location : North of the town of Hayden, along Fish, Foidel, and Troutcreeks in Routt County.Type and Purpose of Project : Class III. Cultural resource inventory formine expansion.Pro.ject Results : The survey recorded 15 prehistoric sites, one historicsite, historic district, and 101 isolated finds. Prehistoric occupation ofthe project area is associated with the Western Archaic tradition.

1979Reference : Zier 1979Sponsoring Institution : Powers ElevationGeneral Location : Southwest of Steamboat Springs and northwest of thecommunity of Oak CreekType and Purpose of Project : Class III, 1,365 acres. Archaeologicalsurface survey for proposed coal mine.Project Results : Four prehistoric sites and two historic sites were recordedalong with nine isolated finds. Locational patterning of prehistoric siteswas largely confined to areas near or adjacent to sources of water.Preliminary assessment of site function suggests that plant foodexploitation was a major activity with some incidental lithic manufacture.No temporarily diagnostic artifacts were found.

1980Reference : Wheeler 1980Sponsorins Institution : Western Cultural Resource Management, Bureau of LandManagement, Little Snake Resource AreaGeneral Location : South of Mt. Harris and the Yampa River along the westernedge of Twenty Mile Park.

Type and Purpose of Project : Class III, 1,515 acres. Locate and assess the

significance of all cultural resources located within the proposed mineboundary

.

Project Results : Four aboriginal sites, one historic site, and four isolated

finds were recorded. Site typology was developed based on the number of

tasks or activities represented at the site. Evidence of two time periods,Paleo-Indian and Historic, were recorded and represented by Paleo-IndianCody complex, Scottsbluff projectile Point (RT 139), and HistoricEuro-American artifacts.

1980Reference : Caraveo 1980SponsorinR Institution : Archaeological Services, Bureau of Land ManagementGeneral Location : Williams Fork Mountains, south of Craig, ColoradoType and Purpose of Project : Class III, 5,583 acres. Archaeologicalinventory of portions of proposed coal mine.

Project Results : A total of five prehistoric sites, one historic site, and

18 prehistoric isolates were recorded.

250

1982Reference : Davis and Westfall 1982

Sponsoring Institution : Energy Fuels CoalGeneral Location : South of the town of Lay in east-central Moffat County.Type and Purpose of Project : Class III, 1,490 acres. Cultural resourceinvestigation on proposed Sugarloaf Mine property and ancillary facilities.Project Results : The theoretical orientation guiding the investigation wasthe hypothesis that if the occupational sequences described for theSugarloaf-Lay site represents extensive, prolonged use, representative ofbase camp activities, (O'Neil 1980), then some supporting evidence should bereflected in the number of and relationship between the spatial location andfunction of special use localities found during the archaeological survey ofthe area around the base camp. This situational land use model, whenapplied to the locational aspects of the cultural remains found in the area,

revealed a correlation between the types of land forms selected and degreeto which they were utilized, but demonstrated that the base camp sites inthe project area represent instances of short-term episodic use and notlong-term continuous occupation. Isolated finds comprised the special uselocalities and lacked the evidence of superimposed, functionally differentutilization episodes that could operate as ancillary support localesnecessary for the maintenance of long-term occupation at a base camp. Theseconclusions were based upon the analysis of six prehistoric sites and 16

isolated finds recorded during the survey. The discovery of only four LatePrehistoric projectile points precluded any conclusions regarding temporalaffiliations for the sites.

1982Reference : Gordon & Kranzush, Inc.

Sponsoring Institution : Bureau of Land ManagementGeneral Location : Lower White River and Danforth Hills.Type and Purpose of Project : Class II, 8,480 acres. Sample survey resultswere to be used to construct site locational prediction model applicable to

large areas of known coal reserves . Model is to be used by the BLM forplanning purposes.Project Results : Three seperate models, using discriminant analysis and

based on geographic areas, were generated using 40-acre tracts. Theinventory located 47 sites, 40 localities, and 73 isolated finds, whichincreased in frequency from Paleo-Indian to Proto-historic periods.

1982Reference : Legard 1982, compilerSponsoring Institution : Hayden Gulch West Coal CompanyGeneral Location : South of Hayden in the Williams Fork Mountains, RouttCounty

.

Type and Purpose of Project : Class III Survey, 3,000 acres, spot checked2,300. Inventory of cultural resources in the proposed Hayden Gulch Minearea.

Project Results : Altogether 29 sites and 20 isolated finds were recorded.Eight of these sites are "aspen art" sites, the first formally recorded for

Moffat County. Aborginal sites consisted of open-lithic scatters and one

251

stone -circle site. The span of occupation indicated was from as early asthe Middle Archaic Period (3000 BC - 1000 BC) through the Late PrehistoricPeriod (AD 500 - 1700). Based on the topography and climate of the projectarea as well as the archaeological record, the authors believe that theWilliams Fork Mountains were primarily used seasonally by aboriginal groupsfor short periods of time during hunting activities.

1983Reference : Kainer 1983Sponsoring Institution : Utah International Inc.

General Location : Danforth Hills.Type and Purpose of Project : Class III, 2,820 acres. Cultural resourceinventory was conducted for the proposed Utah International, Inc. DanforthHills proposed surface mine.Project Results : Prehistoric occupation of the project area did not appearintensive with the majority of sites recorded as small lithic scatters andisolated finds sparsely distributed throughout the area. This patternsupports earlier observations made in adjacent areas by Piontkowski (1981),Gordon et al. (1982), and Kranzush (1982). The four prehistoric sites, twohistoric sites, and 14 isolated finds newly recorded sites, in addition to

previously recorded sites, brings the resource density to one per 98 acres.

1977

Reference : J. Jennings and Sullivan 1977Sponsoring Institution : Laboratory of Public ArchaeologyGeneral Location : South of Craig to Meeker across the White River and southto Rifle, Colorado.Type and Purpose of Project : Class III, 1,600 acres. Archaeological surveyfor proposed transmission line.

Project Results : Twenty-two archaeological sites were located, 21 are

prehistoric and one is of historic vintage. Sixteen isolated finds werealso located during the survey. The line was divided into threegeographical sections, based upon drainage systems and sites associated bybasin are discussed. Generally, the sites recorded were small in size and

contained limited art ifactual assemblages dominated by groundstone. Theapparent span of occupation in the survey area, based upon projectile pointtypology and comparison, covers at least 4,000 years from perhaps as earlyas 2000 BC to early 20th century

1982Reference : Newkirk and Treat 1982

Sponsorina Institution : Gilbert/CommonwealthGeneral Location : North to south from Craig to Rifle, Colorado.

Type and Purpose of Project : Class III, 2,513 acres. Cultural resources

survey of transmission line upgrade.Project Results : Forty -two new and previously recorded cultural resources

were located. Four site types were designed which represented a variation

in activities and occupation length, as defined by tool type and rawmaterial content. Analysis of the inventory data involved comparisons with

a predictive model developed in the Piceance by Grady (1980).

252

1984Reference ; Hoefer and Thompson 1984SponsorinR Institution : Western Wyoming CollegeGeneral Location : Sand Wash Basin, portions of Brown's Park, Cold SpringMountain, Irish Canyon, Vermillion Mesa, and Peck Mesa.

Type and Purpose of Project : Class III, 2,144 acres. Cultural resourcesurvey for seismic exploration lines.

Project Results : A total of 61 newly recorded sites, two previously recordedsites, and 33 isolated finds were located. The prehistoric sites wereclassified hy material assemblages into four types- -open camps, procurementlithic scatters, specialized lithic scatters, and generalized lithicscatters—and locational data supports the typology in that topographic andenvironmental zones appear to reflect the basic function of each site type.

Material assemblages are heavily influenced by the presence of local

toolstone sources. Sites within the Sand Wash Basin are primarily toolstoneprocurement localities while sites outside the basin appear to represent a

segment of sites utilized on seasonal rounds practiced by hunters-gatherers,focussing on the exploitation of resources other than toolstoneprocurement. Few temporal diagnostic artifacts were found, althoughindications are that the area was occupied from the post-Altithermal throughthe Late Prehistoric period.

Excavations

1974Reference : Biggs 1974SponsorinR Institution : Office of the State ArchaeologistGeneral Location: Road out west of Maybell, Colorado.Type and Purpose of Project : Test excavation of 5MF309. The investigationwas conducted in an effort to determine: 1) whether the site had undergoneany further destruction since recording, 2) the horizontal and verticaldimensions of the site, 3) cultural affinities, and 4) the necessary stepsto protect and stabilize the site.

Project Results : The site was tested in each of three localities. It was

determined that the site was a campsite occupied discontinuously over a

period of time. Although no temporally sensitive artifacts were foundinside, the site appears to be affiliated with Late Archaic cultures.

Recommendations were to excavate material exposed in the road cut and takesteps to protect the site from further erosion.

1978Reference: J. Jennings 1978SponsorinR Institution : Laboratory of Public ArchaeologyGeneral Location: South of the town of Lay, Colorado.Type and Purpose of Project : Test excavation: Recovery of significantarchaeological data from the Lay site. Investigation designed to retrieveinformation on site complexity, cultural affiliation, and time depth.

Project Results : Four cultural loci were distinguished by diffentialdistribution of surface fire heaths and artifact concentrations.Protonmagnetometer survey registered the presence of buried culturalfeatures. Occupation of the site was determined to be during the Late

Prehistoric Period, 600-1800 A.D. and possibly as early as 500 B.C.

253

1978Reference : O'Neil 1980

Sponsoring; Institution: Colorado Highway DepartmentGeneral Location : Confluence of the Yampa River and Walton Creek nearSteamboat Springs, Colorado.Type and Purpose of Pro.ject : Salvage excavation of 5RTII. Site isthreatened by proposed construction of Alternate 1 of U.S. Highway 40.

Archaeological material was analyzed to aid in the determination of culturalaffiliations and on-site activities.Pro.ject Results : One cultural occupation zone was identified and associatedwith an oval basin-shaped hearth, Feature 1, C-14 dated to 1730+ 225 B.P.Ten classifiable projectile points were recovered from four stratigraphiclevels. The artifact assemblage was described as the Mountain Tradition ofthe Late Prehistoric period and indicated an open, seasonally reoccupiedquarry and hunting camp occupied by Shoshonean groups exploiting the LowerMontane environment during the Late Prehistoric Period.

1979Reference : Treat 1979Sponsorins Institution : Western Wyoming CollgeGeneral Location : Upland area 5 miles west of Vermillion Bluffs.Type and Purpose of Pro.ject : Archaeological testing and monitoring. Monitorreclamation and recontouring activities adjacent to site 5MF660 and testexcavate Feature 9 to determine its nature and function.Pro.ject Results : During reclamation of a reserve pit, a buried component of

site 5MF660 was exposed. Nine hearth features were recorded with one

feature C-14 sample yielding a date of 1440 - 95 B.P., 510 A.D.(UGa-297s), placing the site in the late Archaic or Early Late Prehistoriccultural time frame. No diagnostic tools were recovered. The site is

believed to have been reoccupied due to the large site area and dispersal of

materials. Major activities evident at the site included tool maufactureand maintenance, and rabbit and juniper berry procurement. The site is

largely disturbed and may be buried under approximately one meter of sand.

1978-1979Reference : O'Neil 1980Sponsoring Institution : Powers Elevation Co.

General Location : South of Lay, Colorado.Type and Purpose of Pro.ject : Test excavation of 5MF476. Refine eligibilitycriteria for nomination of the site to the NRHP through the verification of

preliminary observations on the site's age, cultural affiliation, and

occupational history.Pro.ject Results : The site was determined to be a base camp with six

localities containing cultural features and material which indicate an

occupational history ranging from the Middle Archaic Period (ca. 2300 B.C.)

through the Late Prehistoric Period (ca. 600 - 1800 A.D.). A possible

terminal Altithermal occupation (ca. 5000 B.P.) may also exist but remains

tentative until the natural and cultural stratigraphic relationships are

investigated. The site is considered eligible for nomination to the NRHP.

254

1980

Reference : Hand 1980SponsorinR Institution : Western Cultural Resource ManagementGeneral Location : Southeast of the town of Hayden, Colorado.Type and Purpose of Pro.ject : Test excavation of 5RT139 and 5RT142.Multimethod testing program involving test pits, stratigraphic columns, andbackhoe trenches employed to evaluate site significance.Pro.ject Results : Location of significant subsurface deposits at 5RT139 were

restricted to an area of 7200 m2 and the exposure of subsurface culturalfeatures in approximate association with diagnostic artifactual materialindicated at least two cultural components, a Middle Archaic McKean Complexassociation above the in-site features assigned to the Paleo-Indian period(Cody Complex) . The nature of the occupation/utilization of the site wasundetermined and extensive mitigation procedures were recommended.Testing procedures at 5RT142 indicated secondary deposition—the presence ofarticulated domestic sheep remains was located below all diagnosticprehistoric material.

1981Reference : Tucker 1981

SponsorinR Institution : Nickens and AssociatesType and Purpose of Pro.ject : Mitigative excavation and monitoring at5RT139. Goal of the project was to determine the form and function of thefeatures on the site; ascertain the absolute age of the features throughradiometric methods; clarify site stratigraphy; and determine theinterrelationships of artifacts, features, and activities at the site.

Pro.ject Results : Activities resulted in the exposure of 21 firehearths and a

small lithic assemblage dominated by debitage. Out of nine charcoalsamples, three prehistoric dates were obtained: 6430B.P., 5900 B.P., and1130 B.P. Based on these dates, the previous temporal assignation to thePaleo-Indian Cody Complex, 9000 B.P., (based on surface recovery ofScottsbluff II projectile points) was not supported but rather an occupationof the site intermediary between the Paleo-Indian Cody Complex and theMcKean Complex (3000-5000 B.P.). This period is variously referred to as

the Early Plains Archaic or the Altithermal Period. The presence of theScottbluff points was hypothesized to be heirloom artifacts collected andreused by later populations. The site is believed to be a seasonallyoccupied campsite established for the purpose of procuring large gameanimals.

1982

Reference : Eddy et al. 1982Sponsoring Institution : Science Applications, Inc., National Park Service.General Location : Brown's Park, Colorado.Type and Purpose of Pro.ject : Mitigation and excavation of site 5MF605. Datarecovery program was centered on the river bank section to be impacted byproposed grading operation planned by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife (USFWS) to

halt erosion of the site.Pro.ject Results: The site contained a single cultural level dating to thefur trade era, and faunal analysis revealed the use of native big gameanimals. The site may be remains of Fort Dave Crockett, or some other fur

255

trade operation contemporaneous with it. No structures were found duringthe investigation, but the presence of a structure in a nearby location is

postulated based upon the discovery of architectural material includingnails, window glass, and adobe chinking. An intensive historical literaturesearch complimented the historic site archaeology providing a model for thestudy of historic fur trade forts.

1983Reference ; Reust et al. 1984Sponsoring Institution : Western Research Archaeology, Bureau of LandManagement

.

General Location : Shell Creek near Hiawatha Camp, Colorado.Type and Purpose of Pro.ject : Archaeological investigation in the form of

excavation conducted in order to mitigate the adverse effect to the site bydry exploration well reclamation activities.Pro.ject Results : Two temporally distinct periods were encountered and dated

to the Late Prehistoric (1280 ±50, 1500 ±90 B.P.) and Late Late Archaic(1790 +130B.P.) periods. No diagnostic artifacts were found, althoughnine features were recorded. All nine features were either hearths or ash

stains and were not distinguishable by morphology from either componentexcept by date. Some sort of wild plant processing appears to have been the

main emphasis at the site, which was briefly revisited by small-sized groupsof hunters and gatherers.

"'"U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1987 775-943/65185

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A class I overview of the prehistoric cultural resources, Little ...

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