A Business Case Analysis for the Implementation of Virtual Worlds in Training and Development Courses and Virtual Work Groups in the Canadian Forces

Greg McPherson

Derek Sebalj

2010 EURO SIW May 3, 2010

2010

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Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to provide the business case that the Canadian Forces can

achieve significant benefits from the proper implementation of virtual worlds in T&D courses

and virtual work groups. This report uses business theory principles to identify how the CF can

achieve organizational objectives more effectively through the use of virtual worlds in these two

facets of business practices. The report also identifies challenges to virtual world implementation

and provides best business practice solutions to alleviate these barriers.

Scope

The scope of this study is limited to the implementation of virtual worlds in T&D

activities and virtual teams. This report uses Second Life to transcend from virtual world theory to

business practices. The CF can implement other virtual worlds if they fulfill requirements more

effectively. Furthermore, this study does not seek to quantify the benefits from virtual worlds into

management accountant metrics1. The reasons for this are two-fold. First, virtual worlds provide

both tangible and intangible benefits to organizations. Second, the extent to which organizations

receive virtual world benefits is dependent upon implementation. Thus, virtual world benefits

cannot be accurately measured and quantified through mathematical formulas.

1 Such as Return on Investment

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Methodology

The following provides a high-level synopsis of the activities and initiatives that were

used to complete this report:

A literature review of pertinent business theory and case studies

A qualitative approach was used to assess the merits of virtual world implementation

An extrapolation of business theory principles was conducted to fulfill the purpose and

scope of this report

Second Life Essentials

IT personnel and academics classify Second Life as a virtual world. In essence, Second

Life creates a synthetic environment in which users engage in activities that simulate multiple

aspects of real life. The purpose of these environments is to create a psychological state in which

a person believes they exist within the mediated environment. This is known as generating a

sense of ‘presence’ in the minds of each useri. The generation of this sense of presence elicits

high levels of engagement, interactivity, and immersion from usersii. These effects make virtual

worlds an effective mechanism to conduct business activities online.

Second Life users2 inhabit areas of virtual space that are referred to as regions. Four

classifications of regions exist in Second Life: the mainland, estates, islands, and parcelsiii. Each

region possesses a PG or mature rating. PG regions are relatively free from objectionable

material and Linden Labs enforces strict codes of conductiv. The owner of a region can also

restrict access to the land, which enables corporations to conduct formal activities in a safe

2 Also known as ‘residents’

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environment. Second Life also allows users to encrypt conversations3 to ensure hostile users

cannot access conversation logsv. The total number of residents exceeds fifteen millionvi.

Users must create digital representations of themselves, or avatars, to engage in Second

Life activities. Avatar physical features and dress can be customized to meet user requirements.

Users can use three different methods to transport avatars to different locationsvii. First, users can

use the arrow keys to make the avatar walk in any direction. Second, users can fly to a given

destination. The fly function allows users to navigate over water or other obstacles that prohibit

ground transportation. Finally, avatars can instantaneously teleport to distant locations. This

feature can be executed by double-clicking on the Second Life map and represents the fastest

mode of transportationviii. The user can also use the mouse to alter the head position of the avatar

to examine the virtual world from multiple vantage pointsix.

Second Life users can engage in diverse educational, social, and commercial activities

through three methods of communication. First, residents can use the Voice feature to talk to

other residents through a microphone. Second, residents can use a chat box to type messages.

These conversations are not private and can be viewed by anyone in the immediate vicinity.

Third, users can dialogue in private through the use of the instant message featurex. Users can

also augment these three modes of communication through avatar body language4. This body

language helps to alleviate problems of misinterpretation that can occur through text-based

exchanges.

Second Life possesses a self-contained economy that is based upon the Linden Dollar.

Residents can purchase the Linden Dollar at the LindeX exchange for the daily conversion rate. 3 The specific programs used continue to change but continue to serve the same basic purpose. 4 Such as hand gestures and facial expressions

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The exchange rate for the Linden Dollar fluctuates but usually falls within the range of 260-280

dollars for one US dollarxi. Second Life residents can attempt to earn Linden Dollars through the

sale of virtual items5 or through a ‘virtual job’. Linden Labs estimates that the aggregate value of

traded virtual products exceeds $1.5 US dollars per annumxii.

Many retail corporations have adopted click-and-mortar business models to take

advantage of potential profit enhancements through dissemination of products via Second Life.

Click-and-mortar models refer to corporations that possess a physical retail presence and have

chosen to sell products through online sales channelsxiii. More than 100 large corporations

possess a presence in Second Lifexiv. Corporations typically purchase a private island to conduct

e-commerce initiativesxv.

Companies hope to achieve four strategic advantages through Second Life e-commerce

initiatives. First, online product dissemination can achieve supply chain and marketing cost

savings. In essence, e-tailing allows corporations to sell products directly to consumers. This

transfer bypasses most upstream supply chain processes and subsequently reduces direct labour

and inventory holding costs6xvi. Marketing costs can decrease because usage of multiple sales

channels to disseminate product information enhances brand awareness cheaper and fasterxvii.

Second, click-and-mortar organizations use Second Life to conduct value-added servicesxviii. The

purpose of value-added service provision is to differentiate your product from other substitutable

products in the minds of consumers. This differentiation can increase brand equity, enhance sales

revenues, and therefore enhance corporate profits. For example, potential customers can simulate

the effects of the product in the Second Life synthetic environment, view customized versions of 5 These items range from apparel products to parcels of virtual land 6 Especially for large, expensive, and infrequently purchased products.

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the product, or have a virtual salesperson answer questions about the productxix. Reebok for

example uses ‘mass customization’ features to allow users to create and purchase customized

shoesxx. This feature has proved popular amongst customers and has increase corporate profitsxxi.

Third, the ability to answer product questions and test goods fosters elevated levels of business-

to-consumer trust. This can results in increased sales revenue. Finally, Second Life allows

businesses to expand into new markets and to provide products to new target market segments.

Corporations can disseminate products to global consumers and can target customer

demographic groups who prefer to purchase products online more effectivelyxxii. Linden Labs

recently consolidated the largest Second Life marketplaces into a single commercial platform

and believe this initiative enhances the probability that corporations will achieve the

aforementioned theoretical benefitsxxiii.

The Knowledge Economy and the Business Case to Highlight the Need for Training and Development

Organizations can be defined as social entities that are structured to achieve various

mission and operative goalsxxiv. Each organization interacts with its external environment to

achieve these strategic objectivesxxv. These environments do not remain static however, as

multiple facets of organizational external environments are fluid and continue to change. Failure

to create or revamp business policies and activities in response to external environmental

alterations will decrease the ability of the organization to fulfill its current and future goalsxxvi.

Companies must alter human resource policies in response to the shift towards the

Knowledge Economy. The United Kingdom Department of Trade and Industry defines the

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Knowledge Economy as “a knowledge-driven economy is one in which the generation and

exploitation of knowledge has come to play the predominant part in the creation of wealth”xxvii.

The theoretical foundation behind the rationale to adopt a Knowledge Economy is that the

creation, utilization, and dissemination of information are essential to the effective completion of

business activitiesxxviii. Four important factors that contribute to the shift towards the Knowledge

Economy include: globalization and free trade agreements; international expansion of

corporations into new markets; increased competition from foreign corporations; and high

levels of technological innovationxxix. The Canadian Council on Learning provides evidence of

the shift towards the Knowledge Economy, as high-knowledge companies increased by 78%

increase from 1991-2003xxx. Furthermore, the demand for high-knowledge workers has

dramatically increased in recent years.

The shift towards the Knowledge Economy affects corporate external environments in

three ways. First, the Knowledge Economy creates skill shortagesxxxi. Alternatively stated, a

skills gap exists between employer demands for skill sets and the supply of labour that possesses

themxxxii. The Canada Council on Learning estimates that 42% of working-aged Canadians do

not have the basic skill sets to work in the Knowledge Economyxxxiii. Academic systems further

contribute to the shortage of employees that meet organizational needs, as the Society for Human

Resource Management reports that many high school and college students possess deficient

written, communication, and leadership skill setsxxxiv. Thus, employer demands for high skill

levels, decreases to qualified labour pool candidates, and increases in demand for skilled

applicants exacerbate current skill shortage problems and may hinder corporate efforts to recruit

desired employees without substantially increasing employee wage expenditures.

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Second, the shift towards the Knowledge Economy creates ‘Leaner’ organizationsxxxv.

Many organizations attempt to increase business efficiencies and enhance corporate profitability

through the reduction of direct labour costs. These business practices force many employees to

complete additional and varied job tasks. In order to respond to these external environmental

conditions and remain competitive in the Knowledge Economy, organizations must ensure that

their employees possess the requisite skill sets to accomplish additional and varied tasksxxxvi.

Third, the Knowledge Economy is characterized by rapid alterations and innovations in

Industrial business practices. This in turn makes employee skills obsolete more quicklyxxxvii.

Human resource policies must ensure that employee skill sets remain current in order for the

organization to effectively achieve its objectives in the Knowledge Economy. Therefore,

Knowledge Workers require training and development programs7 in order to create and maintain

a diverse set of job skills that allow them to complete current and future job tasks

effectively8xxxviii.

Need for Training and Development

The purpose of training and development programs is to leverage human capital to

complete current and future organizational objectives effectively. Training programs attempt to

achieve this objective through the provision of programs that teach employees to enhance their

ability to conduct specific job-related tasksxxxix. Development programs teach employees

concepts that they can extrapolate to complete their current jobs or future job tasks more

7 These can also be referred to as ‘education’ programs 8 Knowledge workers also require training and development programs due to increases in skill shortages, alterations to corporate sphere’s of competition, and other alterations to an organization’s external environment that are caused by the Knowledge Economy.

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effectivelyxl. In essence then, development programs teach employees how to think, not what to

think.

Human Resource managers can utilize three types of development programs to enhance

employee skill sets: Cognitive, Behavioural, and Environmentalxli. First, the purpose of cognitive

development strategies is to develop employee skill sets through teaching them concepts that

allow them to complete their current jobs tasks more effectivelyxlii. For example, computer

programmers must update their skill sets and learn to create programs in new computer

languages. Programmer skill sets will become rapidly obsolete in the Knowledge Economy if

their corporation does not provide Cognitive development programs, such as outsourced lectures

and academic courses, to allow them to learn new languagesxliii. Software corporations that fail to

provide cognitive development courses and employ computer programmers with obsolete skill

sets will subsequently be unable to create programs in computer languages that meet customer

requirements. Therefore, the software corporation would be unable to complete its core processes

effectively and would lose substantial revenue.

Second, Environmental strategies of development attempt to alter employee attitudes and

values to create a workforce that works together to achieve organizational objectivesxliv.

Essentially, these programs attempt to increase employee desire to achieve overall strategic

instead of departmental objectives. Corporations can use the following techniques to create an

internal culture that attempts to work together as a cohesive unit to achieve organizational

objectives: job rotation, temporary assignment; and project teamsxlv.

Finally, Behavioural strategies of development alter employee’s behaviour to make them

interact with their environment, such as with colleagues and subordinates, more effectivelyxlvi.

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Behavioural Development programs may include: role-playing; behavioural modelling; work

simulations; sensitivity training; and mentoringxlvii. Behavioural strategies are especially

pertinent to the development of ‘leadership’ skill sets, as behavioural development programs

may seek to develop the following characteristics of employees: their people skills; their ability

to create relationships of trust; their ability to collaborate with people that possess divergent

academic backgrounds and personal characteristics; and their ability to enhance conflict

resolution abilitiesxlviii. The development of these skill sets is essential in the Knowledge

Economy, as contemporary external environmental conditions force leaders to manage numerous

differentiated tasks in order fulfill organizational objectivesxlix.

Empirical studies provide quantitative evidence that training and development programs

enhance human resource and thus corporate productivity. Increases in human resource

productivity via training and development programs are essential if corporations wish to remain

competitive in the Knowledge Economyl. The World Bank reports that the average return on

training and development programs is 24% while corporations that do not provide training

receive substantially less productivity from their human capitalli. Furthermore, the study found

that an increase in 10 hours of professional training yields an increase of productivity of 0.6%

per employeelii. Thus, the study concludes that formal training and development programs

increase worker productivity and are essential to competing in contemporary markets. The

London-Based Institute of Fiscal studies also verifies the positive correlation between training

and development programs and human resource productivity, as they found that a 5% increase in

training yields a 4% increase in worker productivityliii. Additionally, the 2004 Canadian study

entitled Productivity and Wages discovered that programs that develop employee technological

skills substantially increase their productivity. They discovered that a 10% increase in the

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quantity of workers that receive technological training increase human resource productivity by

4.5%liv.

Analysis of Tangible Benefits for the Implementation of Virtual Worlds in CF T&D Courses

The seminal study by Sarah de Freitas examines the quantifiable benefits of

implementing virtual worlds in training and development courses. The hypothesis of the study is

that the implementation of virtual worlds in T&D courses increases user enjoyment, attention

spans, retention, and comprehension of T&D course content in comparison to text-based

learning. The null hypothesis is that the implementation of virtual worlds will not affect user

enjoyment, attention spans, retention, and comprehension of course content in comparison to

text-based learning. The study used three disparate subject groups9 to test the hypothesislv.

The results of the study supported the hypothesis. In particular, the study found that:

- 93% of the respondents thought learning with education simulations was more fun than text-based learninglvi

- 85% of respondents thought the educational simulations helped learners to understand more difficult ideaslvii

- 73% of respondents thought that educational simulations and games made them feel more

confidentlviii

- 78% of the respondents thought that educational simulations and games improved attention spanslix

- Groups with specific skills needs were more engaged in learning through simulations

than through text-based learninglx

9 The first group included academics and teaching assistants. The second group included students, the third group included academics and e-learning specialists, game specialists, CEOs of educational game corporations, and game programmers.

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These effects help to increase human capital productivity to accomplish organizational

objectives. First, increases to enjoyment levels results in increases to learner motivationlxi. This

causation exists because students are more likely to engage in training and development

activities when they receive more enjoyment from the experience. Online learners that partake in

asynchronous and text-based T&D courses often experience low levels of motivation because

they feel lonely and isolatedlxii. In comparison, online learners receive more enjoyment from

learning via virtual worlds because it stimulates the social interactions that are associated with

classroom learning. Synchronous discussions with classmates via virtual worlds provide an

emotional lift that increases student motivation to remain engaged in online courseslxiii.

Furthermore, the facilitation of synchronous communication in a simulated classroom creates a

strong sense of community amongst studentslxiv. This sense of community makes it easier for

students to acquire prestige and a sense of comradery. The human desire to interact with others

and acquire peer approval and prestige through this medium further enhances motivation in

comparison to asynchronous and text-based courseslxv. Finally, most students experience higher

levels of enjoyment from virtual world courses because they offer multiple ways to interact with

the course material. In brief, most students prefer to extrapolate course content to simulated

practical situations than strict text-based learninglxvi.

Higher levels of motivation are important because increases to motivation result in

higher student attention spans for T&D activitieslxvii. Increases to attention spans are important

for two reasons. First, this expedites the time it takes to complete T&D courseslxviii. Students who

experience high levels of enjoyment and motivation are more likely to remain cognitively

engaged in T&D activities for longer periods of timelxix. Higher levels of cognitive engagement

and time spent per day on T&D activities will positively reinforce course content in the minds of

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the user over a shorter course schedule. Furthermore, virtual worlds can use simulations to

stimulate multiple senses to demonstrate training and development concepts. This allows users to

understand ideas more easily10 and expedites the time it takes to complete T&D courses.

Therefore, higher levels of cognitive engagement, time spent on T&D courses, and the

explanation of concepts through the stimulation of multiple senses results in time savings to

complete T&D courseslxx.

Increases to comprehension increase course content retention rateslxxi. Retention rates are

increased through the facilitation of multiple methods of learning and through collaborative

learning. Virtual worlds increase retention rates because they provide course content in multiple

formats that cater to individual learning style preferenceslxxii. The Institute for Learning Styles

Research argues that students use seven distinct perceptual learning styles to learn and retain

content. These include: print, aural, interactive, visual, haptic, kinaesthetic, and olfactorylxxiii.

Each student possesses an inherent perceptual style preference to learn course content. For

example, some students learn more effectively through audio-visual means than text-based

mediumslxxiv. Virtual worlds can accommodate for these learning preferences because students

can engage in simulated problem solving tasks or can view streamlined video of how to apply

course content knowledge to practical taskslxxv. Furthermore, the stimulation of multiple

‘learning pathways’ reinforces course content knowledge more effectively than strict text-based

learninglxxvi. Therefore, the use of virtual worlds in training and development courses increases

retention rates amongst employees in comparison to text-based courseslxxvii.

Virtual worlds further increase retention rates because they facilitate collaborative

learning. For the purposes of this paper, collaborative learning will be defined as a “student 10 Especially in subject areas where visual representation of concepts provides a faster route to the explanation of ideas.

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centered approach in which groups of individuals work jointly on a well-defined learning

task”lxxviii. Collaborative learning possesses the following six characteristics: intentional group

formation, continuity of group interaction, interdependence amongst group members, individual

accountability, explicit attention to the development of social skills, and an instructor as a

facilitator of course contentlxxix. Virtual worlds support collaborative learning because they

provide a synthetic environment that allows geographically dispersed users to engage in

concurrent activities with each other through their avatarslxxx. Additionally, virtual worlds

improve collaborative learning through the facilitation of synchronous verbal and nonverbal

communication. For example, users can speak into microphones and use avatar body language to

convey ideas. The ability to properly convey ideas and avoid potential misinterpretations offers

distinct communication advantages in comparison to asynchronous text-based mediumslxxxi.

Collaborative learning, i.e. teamwork, increases retention rates in two ways. First,

teamwork facilitates social interactions that result in informal learning. Informal learning occurs

when students engage in conversations about course content. Students learn through informal

interactions when they ask colleagues questions and receive immediate feedback to clarify

course concepts11lxxxii. Students can subsequently adapt incorrect behaviours and beliefs to

correctly assimilate contentlxxxiii. Conversations also force people to synthesize course content

facts in new ways. These interactions improve student comprehension of material and reinforce

course concepts through verbal repetition. Second, collaborative learning provides another way

for audio-visual learners to absorb course content more effectivelylxxxiv.

11 Immediate feedback on clarification questions can also result in time savings to complete T&D courses. Herz J (2002). “Gaming the System: What Higher Education Can Learn from Multiplayer Online Worlds”. In: Devlin L (2002). Internet and the University: 2001 Forum. Educause. Cambridge USA. p. 173

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Increases in student retention rates are important because they increase the extrapolation

of T&D course concepts to job-related taskslxxxv. In essence, students who retain more course

content are able to extrapolate more concepts to job-related tasks. Additionally, virtual worlds

also enhance student extrapolation of course content over text-based mediums because they

allow for contextual learning. Virtual worlds provide contextual learning opportunities because

synthetic environments can provide simulated scenarios of real-life and real-time events. These

simulations allow for effective extrapolation of course content because the synthetic environment

simulations generate a sense of presence amongst studentslxxxvi. Contextual learning in turn

elevates student levels of confidence to extrapolate course content because they feel as though

they have already successfully accomplished the tasklxxxvii. Quantitative studies on the usage of

virtual worlds in the railway industry substantiate this rationale, as these companies use virtual

worlds to simulate train malfunctions in order to improve decision-making processes under

stressful situationslxxxviii. Furthermore, a comparative study revealed that employees extrapolate

more virtual world T&D course content in a way that enhances job performance than text-based

courseslxxxix.

The extrapolation of course content to job-related tasks increases human capital

productivity to achieve organizational objectives12xc. As previously stated, the purpose of

training and development courses is to teach skill sets that enable employees to achieve current

and future organizational objectives more effectively. Human capital productivity therefore

increases if they use T&D skills to complete job-related tasks. The following bullet points

provide a summary rationale for how virtual worlds increase the ability of human capital to

achieve organizational objectives:

12 Provided the organization has aligned T&D courses to organizational objectives,

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- Virtual worlds increase T&D enjoyment levels

- Higher enjoyment levels increase motivation to learn T&D content

- Higher motivation levels increases employee attention spans

- Higher attention spans results in time savings to complete courses and increases employee retention rates

- Higher retention rates increases extrapolation of T&D course content

- Higher rates of extrapolation increases human capital productivity to achieve organizational objectives.

Therefore, the implementation of virtual worlds in training and development courses therefore

helps organizations to accomplish objectives more effectively.

Additional T&D Benefits: Adaptation to CF Demographic Shifts- Facilitation of Neomillennial Learning Styles

The ability to facilitate multiple methods of course content dissemination is further

important due to the evolution of preferred learning styles in younger demographicsxci. Humans

that are born after 1982 exhibit a set of epistemological preferences that are referred to as

Neomillennial styles of learning13xcii. In essence, this group primarily uses web-based mediums

to acquire knowledge. Diana Oblinger et al highlight the permeability of Internet use for

educational purposes amongst this demographic, as they report that 95% use the Internet for

academic research and 80% believe it helps them with their studiesxciii. Additionally, 75% of

students report they prefer to conduct research via the Internet and online databases than from

13 This are also referred to as learning through “mediated immersion” or “immersive learning approaches” De Freitas S and Neumann T (2009). “The Use of ‘Exploratory Learning’ for Supporting Immersive Learning in Virtual Environments”. Computers & Education. 52.2: 343-352. p. 345. And Dede C (2005). “Planning for Neomillenial Learning Styles”. Educause Quarterly. 28.1: 7-12. p. 7

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the libraryxciv. 75% of students also use the Internet to contact professors for assignment

explanations and desire immediate feedbackxcv.

The use of these mediums creates an epistemological preference towards the synthesis of

incomplete information from multiple sources into a complete set of facts. This diverges from

previous demographic epistemological preferences that used a ‘validated’ source of knowledge,

such as a textbook or television media, to acquire informationxcvi. Furthermore, the desire for

experiential learning and the use of web-based technologies has fostered a preference for

learning mediums that allow for teamwork activities, learning through extrapolation of content to

practical applications, co-design of educational experiences to meet individualized needs, and

immediate feedback from lessonsxcvii.

Many academics within the field of pedagogy advocate for the incorporation of virtual

worlds in courses to accommodate Neomillennial epistemological preferencesxcviii. Furthermore,

Neomillennial students strongly endorse the use of virtual worlds in the classroom, as the

majority are dissatisfied with the current implementation of IT in academics and advocate for the

use of online mediums to support their pedagogic styles of learningxcix.The reasons for this

incorporation are three-fold. First, virtual worlds provide instant access to experts, colleagues,

and virtual communities of practice. This enables users to accomplish tasks in teams and obtain

immediate feedback from exercisesc. As previously stated, team-based learning facilitates formal

and informal learning and increases course content comprehension, retention, and extrapolation.

Current asynchronous text-based online T&D courses are unable to effectively provide students

with this experienceci. Second, virtual worlds can simulate real-life physical environments. This

enables learners to use experiential learning to solve many structured and non-structured

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simulated problemscii. The extrapolation of course content to multiple scenarios increases the

retention rate and probability that learners will extrapolate T&D course content to their jobs in

comparison to current methods. Finally, virtual worlds allow students to possess greater control

over the learning experience. In essence, the facilitation of multiple learning approaches via

virtual worlds allows students to select a preferred method(s) to learn course content. For

example, text-based learners can download course lecture notes, audio-visual learners can

streamline pre-recorded lectures on Second Life, and anyone can ask elaboration questions from

colleagues and professors in a synchronous environment. Thus, the facilitation of multiple

learning styles further increases retention rates and reduces the time the time it takes to learn

T&D content. This time saving represents a very important benefit from virtual world

implementation in T&D coursesciii. Thus, the implementation of virtual worlds in CF T&D

courses can increase the productivity of human capital and allow the organization to achieve its

objectives more effectively.

Potential Human Barriers to the Realization of Virtual World Course Benefits and Solutions to Mitigate these Effects

Corporations must ensure numerous potential human barriers do not impede employee

acceptance of virtual world technologies in T&D courses. Failure to address these barriers will

mitigate some of the benefits from virtual world T&D initiatives.

Barriers that may Impede Instructor Adoption of Technology

Instructors may not embrace virtual world technology for numerous reasons. The first set

of instructor barriers pertains to the perceived suitability of virtual worlds in training and

development courses. Many instructors do not know how virtual worlds can be used to enhance

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course delivery. Also, many instructors believe virtual worlds cannot help teach their subject and

students do not desire these programsciv. These factors cause many instructors to believe current

course delivery methods are sufficient and therefore to dismiss virtual technologies.

The second set of barriers pertains to limited available time and financial resources for

training and development courses. First, most instructors do not have the time to take training

courses to learn to teach virtual world classes. Second, they may be hesitant to adopt virtual

worlds if organizations do not believe teaching innovation is a high priority and therefore do not

provide adequate funding to implement new teaching technologies. Third, instructors may not

want to adopt virtual worlds if they do not have access to sufficient technical and administrative

supportcv.

Fear of the unknown represents the third set of barriers to instructor implementationcvi.

Professors may distrust innovative teaching methods if they possess insufficient technological

skills. This barrier will impede implementation regardless of potential benefits. Furthermore,

professors may be apprehensive to use virtual worlds without physical demonstrations that

provide first-hand experience of theoretical benefitscvii.

Barriers that may Impede Student Acceptance of Virtual Worlds and Relevant Solutions

The first set of factors that may impede student acceptance of virtual worlds in T&D

courses is also the fear of the unknown. In brief, some students may be reluctant to embrace

technology that they do not know how to use14. This barrier becomes exacerbated if insufficient

technical support exists to teach learners to use virtual worlds. Additionally, students may

14 This is more prevalent amongst older demographics

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hesitate to take virtual world courses if they are unaware of the technologies’ ability to facilitate

synchronous social interactions15.

The solution to this set of barriers is also information dissemination. Organizations

should provide students with the necessary information and technical support to take courses in

virtual worlds. This support should include the provision of necessary technology, a tutorial that

demonstrates how to use Second Life16, and a technician to resolve any generic technical

problems that arise.

Internal environmental factors constitute the second set of barrierscviii. First,

organizational risk aversion factors will affect employee acceptance and funding for new

technologies. For example, companies that adopt conservative approaches towards new

technologies and business practices tend to hire employees with the conservative ideologies.

Conservative employees may be apprehensive to use and financially support the implementation

of innovative technologies in training and development coursescix. This “if it ain’t broke don’t fix

it” mentality will result in less effective T&D activities that generate lower human capital

productivity increases.

Risk adverse organizations can increase employee acceptance of virtual worlds through

the promulgation of a business case that details the benefits of these technologiescx. Furthermore,

organizations can increase buy-in through strong top-down management support for new e-

learning initiativescxi. This support can range from informal statements of moral encouragement

to the alteration of employee reward systems. Finally, the organization should incorporate

feedback and e-learning needs from all divisions into the implementation of virtual world T&D

15 As previously stated, students possess a preference to learn through social interactions. 16 This tutorial should also seek to provide assurances to potential employee apprehensions. For example, it should explicitly demonstrate the ways that employees can interact with colleagues and professors. Managers can also guide employees through their first virtual world session as a means to supplement the tutorial.

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programscxii. This is essential to ensure top-down support and high usage rates for new programs

in each division.

Second, organizational reward systems may provide insufficient incentives to entice

employees to take courses and learn to use virtual worlds. Insufficient incentives become very

problematic if employees believe they can take fewer training and development courses without

stunting stunt career progression because human capital productivity will decrease. Problems

from lack of incentives become exacerbated if managers do not provide top-down support for

T&D initiativescxiii.

Organizations in this case must alter reward systems to place priority on employee

participation in T&D programs and the development of technological skill sets to use virtual

worldscxiv. Organizations must determine for themselves the extent to which employee reward

systems must be altered to achieve desired results. For example, a statement from management

that clearly states the importance of T&D activities may suffice. Alternatively, managers can

assess job performance in relation to T&D-related methods employees use to complete job tasks.

Employees that effectively extrapolate T&D concepts to job-related tasks should have high

levels of productivity and therefore receive higher performance reviews. Furthermore,

organizations can hold managers accountable for the T&D activities of employees. For example,

Dell managers face reprisals unless every employee completes specific T&D courses. This will

create sufficient top-down support for T&D coursescxv.

Third, managers must resist the urge to disturb employees that engage in virtual world

courses from their deskscxvi. Interruptions in online learning courses are just as unacceptable as

interruptions in face-to-face classroom settings. Failure to provide employees with the necessary

time without interruption to complete courses from their desks will detract from T&D benefits.

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One solution to this problem is to establish a designated ‘training lab’ within the office for virtual

world courses. Management must be mandated to not disrupt classroom activities unless in case

of emergencycxvii.

Case for Second Life Implementation in DND Conferences and Work Groups

Work groups with proper dynamics are a powerful organizational business management

tool to achieve organizational objectivescxviii. Work groups are defined as a collection of

individuals that work together to achieve specific taskscxix. Work group dynamics are

characterized by high task interdependency, shared responsibilities, and social cohesion. Work

groups are important organizational tools for three predominant reasons. First, work groups

allow individuals with specialized expertise to share knowledge and resources to accomplish

taskscxx. This collaboration can create economies of scale for knowledge workers. Knowledge

economies of scale allow workers to complete tasks in less time and with more effective results.

Second, collaborative efforts reduce duplication of work. This is important to maximize human

resource productivity. Third, work groups are effective because they help create consensus and

support for specific organizational decisionscxxi. This support is achieved when work groups

generate high levels of ego identification with organizational decisions. High levels of ego

identification can only be achieved if decisions are arrived at by consensus and every member

feels they have contributed to the organizational decisioncxxii. The concept of ego identification is

also synonymous with the central tenets of the widely accepted business model of the Carnegie

Approach to decision-making1.

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If the group leader uses legitimate power to either form or alter a group consensus, he or

she must take full responsibility for the outcome of the decision. This will retain some employee

desire to implement the decision and will help retain member loyalty for the work group

itselfcxxiii. Failure to achieve consensus, the subsequent use of legitimate power to enforce

decisions upon the working group, and a lack of accountability for poor authoritarian decisions

by the group leader is tantamount to coercion and will negate the benefits of working groups.

The trend towards global business practices results in a need for employees in

geographically dispersed locations to co-ordinate efforts. The Canadian Forces for example

frequently collaborates with the United States and NATO countries to ensure standardization,

interoperability, and ultimately successful multinational field missions. Geography creates three

problems for face-to-face work groups however. First, travel expenses can render some work

groups cost-prohibitive. This is problematic because organizations may not partake in

collaborative efforts that can enhance organizational decision-making processes. The lack of

work group idea exchanges may result in worse organizational decisions that detract from the

corporation’s ability to achieve its objectives. Second, travel times reduce the productivity of

employees who attend work group events. For example, an employee may have to travel ten

hours to attend a work group meeting. These ten hours is considered wasted employee

productivity time because he is not working on job-related taskscxxiv. Third, employees with tight

time constraints may be unable to attend meetings due to travel timecxxv. Absence of employees

is obviously a major barrier to derive decision-making benefits from exchanges of ideas and also

to create consensus, ego identification, and employee support for work group decisions. This can

result in work group dysfunction and the mitigation of any benefits from these groups.

24

Corporations can organize employees into virtual teams and conduct virtual conferences

in Second Life to alleviate geographic barriers to effective work groupscxxvi. Virtual teams can be

defined as “workers who are dispersed across geographical, temporal, and organizational

boundaries, yet collaborate using information and telecommunications technology”cxxvii. These

teams possess the same essential dynamics as, attempt to achieve the same objectives, and

attempt to provide the same benefits face-to-face work groupscxxviii.

Virtual teams can use Second Life to replicate work environments that create functional

work group dynamics. The first task is to create a physical space to meet. This workspace should

be similar to real life environments. Second, the agenda and a list of preferred Second Life

settings should be disseminated on a SL blackboard or a website prior to the meeting. The list of

settings is essential since they will detail optimal audio-visual settings, govern avatar protocol17,

and provide the co-ordinates for the meeting location. Third, meeting protocol must be based

upon real-life meetings and the moderator must ensure it is followedcxxix. The moderator can

govern the meeting through the Second Life ‘facilitator command bar’. More specifically, the

start button commences the meeting, the searchlight button highlights the current speaker, the

hurry up button turns the searchlight red, the interrupt button enables the facilitator to speak

immediately, the vote button commences a voting session, and the end meeting button terminates

the meetingcxxx. Also, the meeting chat board acts as the minute taker and records meeting

conversations. The facilitator can refer to previous statements to substantiate arguments or verify

that someone made a previous claimcxxxi.

Virtual teams eliminate the first geographic barrier because they are cost efficientcxxxii.

Virtual teams do incur travel costs because work is conducted from the employees’ desk. This

17 Such as dress attire and appropriate actions. This is essential to preserve the integrity of virtual teams.

25

saves corporations transit, meal, incidental, and hotel costscxxxiii. IBM for example estimated that

it saved $250,000 in travel costs for a large Academy of Technology (AoT) virtual teamcxxxiv.

Second, virtual teams do not reduce human capital productivity because employees can

immediately return to work-related tasks after virtual meetings. IBM further estimates that AoT

virtual meeting saved the corporation $150,000 in human productivity costscxxxv. Furthermore,

human capital productivity further increases because virtual teams can shift work to colleagues

in different time zonescxxxvi. This allows teams to complete work up to the twenty-four hour daily

timeframecxxxvii. Third, the reduction of meeting costs and wasted travel time increases virtual

work groups attendance ratescxxxviii. The IEEE Virtual Program Committee Meeting increased

group participation by 21% in comparison to previous physical face-to-face meetingscxxxix.

Drawbacks to Work Groups and Management Solutions to Mitigate these Challenges

Despite significant benefits from the alleviation of geographic barriers, many unique

challenges exist to effectively manage virtual teams. These challenges exist because face-to-face

meetings create shared understanding, integration18, and mutual trust between colleagues with

greater ease than virtual reality mediumscxl. Work group chairmen must implement numerous

management strategies to ensure these challenges do not undermine the realization of virtual

team benefitscxli.

First Category of Drawbacks: Low Levels of Shared Understanding

18 This refers to working together in a way that creates value

26

Virtual work groups must create a shared understanding of work group objectives19, how

to achieve them, and what tasks each member must accomplish. Individuals from different

cultures, business units, organizations, and academic disciplines often possess divergent

perspectives on these issues. Shared understanding is created when members bridge dissimilar

backgrounds, share experiences, and have the opportunity to socialize and share information with

each othercxlii.

The creation of shared understanding is important for several reasons. First, shared

understanding allows team members to predict the behaviour of other team members.

Predictability increases worker productivity because it decreases the need for constant

monitoring, co-ordination, and consultation with team memberscxliii. Second, shared

understanding of work group goals helps ensure financial resources are allocated to the

achievement of organizational objectivescxliv. Third, shared understanding increases work group

motivation because team members believe work is directed towards the achievement of goals.

Failure to create a shared understanding will result in lack of consensus, reduction in worker

productivity, and poor task completion resultscxlv.

Work groups in face-to-face environments can easily create shared understanding

because employees can co-ordinate efforts, hold formal project meetings, and engage in casual

work conversations more easily than in virtual teamscxlvi. Virtual teams are unable to easily

engage in these activities however, which in turn makes it more difficult to bridge dissimilar

backgrounds, socialize, and share information and experiences. The inability of virtual work

groups to easily engage in these activities hinders their ability to create shared understanding and

therefore to create effective work group dynamicscxlvii.

19 This heading also encompasses the need for clear definitions on terminology.

27

Managers can use the following list of tactics to help create shared understanding and

mitigate adverse effects from this set of problems:

- Create agreed upon terminology

- Be explicit in communications to avoid misinterpretation

- Build a strong team identity through team-building exercises

- Compose teams in which members have similar backgrounds

- Highlight and emphasize similarities among team members

- Facilitate sharing of information about day-to-day activities throughout the project

- Identify essential knowledge that is needed on the project, and make sure that this knowledge is shared, especially across sites

- Encourage face-to-face meetings with team members early in the project and periodically throughout longer, more difficult projects (if feasible)

- Encourage team members to visit the work locations of other team members (if feasible)

- Keep turnover low

- Provide easy access to and support for (including training and technical support) Second

Life and any other online team spacescxlviii

Second Category of Drawbacks: Low Levels of Integration

The second classification of barriers to effective virtual work groups are integration

problems. Integration refers to the way that employees work together to create value, such as the

creation of organizational decisions, policies, or the development of productscxlix. In essence,

disparate organizational units may possess different policies, systems to accomplish tasks,

technological structures, and reward systems for employeescl. Different policies and systems to

28

accomplish tasks are problematic because they lower levels of integration and shared

understanding. This undermines virtual team dynamics because virtual work groups are unable to

easily create requisite levels of either in comparison to face-to-face work groupscli. Different

technological structures may create integration barriers if they are incompatible with other virtual

team members’ structures. For example, the DWAN is an ineffective medium to conduct NATO

related virtual team tasks because members from other countries do not have access to it.

Additionally, different reward structures may cause problems if managers do not create sufficient

incentives for virtual team collaborationclii. This sometimes occurs because virtual team efforts

may appear to be abstract and not a priority in comparison to the achievement of on-site taskscliii.

The lack of adequate rewards may further compound problems of personal motivation to

accomplish virtual team tasks, as employees may already perceive on-site tasks to be more

important and may also shirk virtual work because they become irritated by constant emailscliv.

The following list provides managers with of tactics to avoid adverse problems associated

with low levels of integration:

- Create shared understanding

- Ensure compatibility of technological systems20

- Alter reward systems

- Focus employees on tasks during meetings

Third Category of Drawbacks: Low Levels of Trust

The third set of challenges for virtual teams relates to the reduced ability to generate trust

between members. Trust is predicated upon three antecedents: ability, benevolence, and

20 Such as the use of Second Life for all virtual meetings

29

integrity. Ability refers to the belief that an employee possesses the skills, competencies, and

characteristics to complete a task. Benevolence refers to the belief that an employee wants to

complete a task for the benefit of the group. Integrity refers to the belief that an employee

adheres to a set of moral principles. Trust is important because people will not devote their best

efforts and full support for work group decisions without it, which in turn undermines the

benefits of these teams.

Face-to-face meetings facilitate higher levels of trust because evolution causes humans to

develop trust relationships through continuous personal interactions, communications, and

shared experiencesclv. Virtual teams cannot engage in these activities however and therefore must

attempt to develop personal trust relationships through the use of technological mediums. This

works to the extent that humans can develop Swift Trust through technological mediums. This

trust occurs in high-intensity situations and possesses the following attributes: fellow colleagues

care about virtual group tasks and objectives, suspension of doubts about colleague and work

group uncertainties, an increased willingness to take risks, and the expectations of benefits from

virtual team activitiesclvi.

Swift trust is sufficient to allow virtual teams to complete short-term projectsclvii.

However, Swift Trust is insufficient to generate effective Perpetual Virtual Team21 dynamics.

Personal Trust is an antecedent to effective Perpetual Teams and can only be acquired and

maintained through collocated activities. Alternatively stated, technological mediums cannot

currently provide a substitute for the necessary personal interactions to create sufficient levels of

Personal Trust to maintain Perpetual Teams. This is highlighted by the following quote from

Joseph Nandhakumar:

21 Perpetual Virtual Teams possess a lifespan that is greater than one year.

30

“I say, ‘no we can’t do it virtually’, we can get so far virtually but until we have a real good

drink and a good meal and a good social chat at length we are not going to be a ‘real team’ We

can then use technology to maintain it [relationship] and obviously its going to slide.”clviii

The caveat to current virtual team research is that it does not address whether or not

virtual worlds can generate sufficient levels of Personal Trust. The ability of Second Life to

create presence holds substantial promise and future research may determine that sufficient

levels of Personal Trust can be obtained to maintain Perpetual Teams. Furthermore, Perpetual

Teams can meet occasionally to establish Personal Trustclix. Organizations will still realize

significant cost savings because the virtual team will still conduct the majority of meetings

online.

Managers must take extra efforts to create high levels of trust through team-building

exercises. The first meeting should seek to accomplish the following objectives: provide

assurances that the technological medium can effectively facilitate meetings; establish explicit

deliverables, due dates, and system of accountability; and conduct ice-breaker activities to

increase perceptions of ability, benevolence, and integrityclx. For example, team managers can

ask employees to share some personal information, their areas of competency, and successful

experiences with work groups. Furthermore, virtual work groups can generate high levels of

Personal Trust to sustain Perpetual Work Groups through collocated activities if they can be

feasibly conductedclxi.

31

Conclusion

Corporations can incorporate virtual worlds into T&D courses and work groups to

achieve organizational objectives more effectively. Virtual classrooms provide employees with

an opportunity to increase enjoyment levels, motivation, content retention rates, and the chance

to extrapolate course concepts to job-related tasks. This is especially prevalent amongst younger

demographics that possess preferences for Neomillennial styles of learning. Corporations must

overcome instructor barriers that pertain to suitability, limited time and financial resources, and

fear of the unknown however to maximize increases to human productivity through T&D

courses. Furthermore, organizations must mitigate student fear of the unknown and create an

internal culture that provides top-down support for virtual classrooms to achieve the

aforementioned ends.

Virtual teams provide organizations with a powerful tool to achieve face-to-face work

group benefits from employees in disparate locations due to the alleviation of geographic

barriers. These teams can also save organizations significant costs and increase human

productivity due to decreases in travel times. Three sets of barriers can impede successful virtual

team implementation however. These include: low levels of shared understanding, low levels of

integration, and low levels of trust. Managers must use numerous additional tactics to ensure

virtual teams remain function and assist the organization in the achievement of strategic

objectives.

i Laarni J et al (2005). “Presence Experience in Mobile Gaming”. Proceedings of DiGRA 2005 Conference: Changing Views – World at Play”. pp. 1-6. p. 1

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ii Ibid, p. 1 iii Strickland J and Roos D (2009). “The Geography of Second Life”. Discover. Online. iv Ibid, online v Porter W (2007). “Going Google Second Life Gets Encryption”. Wayne Porter Online. Online. vi Plunkett L (2008). “So How Many People Actually Use Second Life?”. Kotaku. Online. vii Rymaszewski M et al (2006). Second Life: Official Guide. Wiley Publications. Ch1. viii Strickland J and Roos D (2009). “Second Life Avatars”. Discover. Online. ix Ibid, online x Strickland J and Roos D (2009). “Walking and Talking in Second Life”. Discover. Online. xi Rymaszewski M et al (2006). Second Life: Official Guide. Wiley Publications. Ch13 xii Williams I (2009). “Linden Labs Expands E-Commerce in Second Life”. NUNet. Online. xiii Turban E et al (2008). Electronic Commerce: A Managerial Perspective. Pearson-Prentice Hall. New Jersey. p. 102 xiv Rymaszewski M et al (2006). Second Life: Official Guide. Wiley Publications. Ch1 xv Ibid, Ch1 xvi Steinfeld C et al (2002). “Integrating Brick and Mortar Locations with E-Commerce: Understanding Synergy Opportunities”. IEEE: Proceedings of the 35th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. 10 pages. p. 2 xvii Ibid, p. 2 xviii Ibid, p. 2 xix Ibid, p. 2 xx Siklos R (2006). “A Virtual World but Real Money”. New York Times. Online. xxi Ibid, online xxii Steinfeld C et al (2002). “Integrating Brick and Mortar Locations with E-Commerce: Understanding Synergy Opportunities”. IEEE: Proceedings of the 35th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. 10 pages. p. 3 xxiii Williams I (2009). “Linden Labs Expands E-Commerce in Second Life”. NUNet. Online. xxiv Daft R (2004). Organization Theory and Design (8th Edition). Thomson and South-Western. p. 11 xxv Ibid, p. 136 xxvi Ibid, p. 140-141 xxvii Stanford-Smith and Kidd T (2000). E-Business: Key Issues, Applications and Technologies. IOS Press. p. 24 xxviii Ernst and Young (2006). “What is the Knowledge Economy?”. Ministry of Economic Development New Zealand. Online xxix Ibid, online xxx Canadian Council on Learning (2007). “The Skills Gap in Canada: The Knowledge Intensity of Canadian Jobs is Growing Rapidly, Lessons in Learning”. Canadian Council on Learning Website Series. Online. xxxi Ibid, online. and Goldenberg M (2005). “Employer Investment in Workplace Learning in Canada”. Canadian Council on Learning. 55 pages. p. 6-7 xxxii Canadian Council on Learning (2007). “The Skills Gap in Canada: The Knowledge Intensity of Canadian Jobs is Growing Rapidly, Lessons in Learning”. Canadian Council on Learning Website Series. Online. xxxiii Bailey L. “Connecting the Dots: Linking Training Investment to Business Outcomes and the Economy”. Canadian Council on Learning. 77 pages. p. 20 xxxiv The Conference Board et al (2006). “Are They Really Ready to Work?”. The Conference Board et al. 61 pages. p. 11 xxxv Schwind et al (2007). Canadian Human Resource Management: A Strategic Approach. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. p. 308-309 xxxvi Ibid, p. 308-309 and Goldenberg M (2005). “Employer Investment in Workplace Learning in Canada”. Canadian Council on Learning. 55 pages. p. 7

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xxxvii Goldenberg M (2005). “Employer Investment in Workplace Learning in Canada”. Canadian Council on Learning. 55 pages. p. 6 xxxviii Ibid, 7-8 and Schwind et al (2007). Canadian Human Resource Management: A Strategic Approach. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. p. 299, 309-313 xxxix Schwind et al (2007). Canadian Human Resource Management: A Strategic Approach. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. p. 299, 303 xl Ibid, p. 299, 307 xli Ibid, p. 309 xlii Ibid, p. 309-310 xliii Ibid, p. 309, 311 xliv Ibid, p. 313 xlv Ibid, p. 313 xlvi Ibid, p. 312 xlvii Ibid, p. 312 xlviii Pettit L (2004). “Mentoring will Motivate”. Personnel Today. Accessed: November 10, 2008. Online and Emerald Insight (2008). “The Act Becomes Real: Drama Study and Leadership Development”. Development and Learning in Organizations. 22.6: 26-28. p. 28 xlix Ibid, p. 26-27 l Bailey L. “Connecting the Dots: Linking Training Investment to Business Outcomes and the Economy”. Canadian Council on Learning. 77 pages. p. 3-6, 18-24 li Ibid, p. 18 lii Ibid, p. 4 liii Ibid, p. 6 liv Ibid, p. 18 lv De Freitas S (2006). “Using Games and Simulations for Supporting Learning”. Learning, Media and Technology. 31.4: 343-358. p. 347 lvi Ibid, p. 348 lvii Ibid, p. 348 lviii Ibid, p. 348 lix Ibid, p. 348 lx Ibid, p. 348 lxi Ibid, p. 350-351 lxii Frankola K (2001). “Why Online Learners Drop Out”. Workforce. October 2001: 52-60. p. 58 lxiii Ibid, p. 60 lxiv Ibid, p. 58 lxv Ibid, p. 60 lxvi De Freitas S (2006). “Using Games and Simulations for Supporting Learning”. Learning, Media and Technology. 31.4: 343-358. p. 351 lxvii Ibid, p. 350-351 lxviii Ibid, p. 353 lxix Ibid, p. 353 lxx Ibid, p. 354 lxxi Ibid, p. 350-351 lxxii De Freitas S (2006). “Using Games and Simulations for Supporting Learning”. Learning, Media and Technology. 31.4: 343-358. p. 351 lxxiii Shea-Schultz H and Fogarty J (2002). Online Learning Today: Strategies that Work. Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc. San Francisco. p. 28-29

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lxxiv Ibid, p. 28-29 lxxv Ibid, p. 351 lxxvi Mungai D et al (2002). Games to Teach By. Distance Learning, 2002: Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning. p. 246-247 lxxvii Ibid, p. 246 and Shea-Schultz H and Fogarty J (2002). Online Learning Today: Strategies that Work. Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc. San Francisco. p. 28-29 lxxviii Lee M (2009). “How Can 3D Virtual Worlds be Used to Support Collaborative Learning? An Analysis of Cases from the Literature”. Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society. 5.1: 149-158. p. 150 lxxix Ibid, p. 150-151 lxxx Ibid, p. 151 lxxxi Ibid, p. 151 lxxxii Schultz H and Fogarty J (2002). Online Learning Today: Strategies that Work. Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc. San Francisco. p. 20-21 and Frankola K (2001). “Why Online Learners Drop Out”. Workforce. October 2001: 52-60. p. 60 and Romano D and Brna P (2001). “Presence and Reflection in Training: Support for Learning to Improve Quality Decision-Making Skills under Time Limitations”. CyberPsychology & Behaviour. 4.2: 265-277. p. 266 lxxxiii Romano D and Brna P (2001). “Presence and Reflection in Training: Support for Learning to Improve Quality Decision-Making Skills under Time Limitations”. CyberPsychology & Behaviour. 4.2: 265-277. p. 266 lxxxiv Schultz H and Fogarty J (2002). Online Learning Today: Strategies that Work. Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc. San Francisco. p. 20 lxxxv Romano D and Brna P (2001). “Presence and Reflection in Training: Support for Learning to Improve Quality Decision-Making Skills under Time Limitations”. CyberPsychology & Behaviour. 4.2: 265-277. p. 265 lxxxvi Ibid, p. 265-267 lxxxvii Ibid, p. 267 lxxxviii Tichon J (2007). “Using Presence to Improve a Virtual Training Environment”. CyberPsychology & Behaviour. 10.6: 781-787. p. 781 lxxxix Schultz H and Fogarty J (2002). Online Learning Today: Strategies that Work. Berrett-Koehler Publishers Inc. San Francisco. p. 22 xc Schwind et al (2007). Canadian Human Resource Management: A Strategic Approach. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. p. 299, 303 xci Dede C (2005). “Planning for Neomillenial Learning Styles”. Educause Quarterly. 28.1: 7-12. p. 1 xcii Ibid, p. 1 xciii Oblinger D (2003). “Boomers & Gen-Xers Millennials: Understanding the New Students”. Educause Review. July/August 2003: 37-47. p. 39 xciv Ibid, p. 39 xcv Ibid, p. 39 xcvi Dede C (2005). “Planning for Neomillenial Learning Styles”. Educause Quarterly. 28.1: 7-12. p. 7 xcvii Ibid, p. 7, 10 xcviii Ibid, p. 8 xcix Oblinger D (2003). “Boomers & Gen-Xers Millennials: Understanding the New Students”. Educause Review. July/August 2003: 37-47. p. 39-40, 44 c Dede C (2005). “Planning for Neomillenial Learning Styles”. Educause Quarterly. 28.1: 7-12. p. 8 ci Ibid, p. 7 cii Ibid, p. 8 ciii De Freitas S and Neumann T (2009). “The Use of Exploratory Learning for Supporting Immersive Virtual Environments. Computers and Education. 52.2: 343-353. p. 345 civ Lean J et al (2006). “Simulations and Games: Use and Barriers in Higher Education”. SAGE Publications. 7.3: 227-242. p. 236

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cv Ibid, p. 236 cvi Ibid, p. 237-238 cvii Ibid, p. 237-238 cviii Geisman J (2001). “If You Build It, Will They Come? Overcoming Obstacles to E-Learning”. ASTD. Online. cix Ibid, online cx Ibid, online cxi Ibid, online cxii Ibid, online cxiiiFrankola K (2001). “Why Online Learners Drop Out”. Workforce. October 2001: 52-60. p. 54 cxiv Ibid, p. 54 cxv Ibid, p. 56-58 cxvi Ibid, p. 55 cxvii Ibid, p. 55 cxviii Likert, R. “The Principle of Supportive Relationships”. In: Pugh, D.S (2nd ed.). London, England: Penguin Books. p. 306-308 cxix Ibid, p. 306-308 cxx Baskerville R and Nandhakumar J (2007). “Activating and Perpetuating Virtual Teams: Now that We’re Mobile, Where do we Go?”. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication. 50.1: 17-34. p. 22 cxxi Ibid, p. 300-301 cxxii Ibid, p. 308 cxxiii Ibid, p. 309 cxxiv Shea-Schultz H and Fogarty J (2002). Online Learning Today: Strategies that Work. Berrett- Koehler Publishers Inc. San Francisco. p. 81 cxxv Linden Labs (2008). “Case Study: How Meeting in Second Life Transformed IBM’s Technology Elite into Virtual World Believers”. Linden Labs. p. 2-4 cxxvi De Lucia A et al (2008). “SLMeeting: Supporting Collaborative Work in Second Life”. ACM AVI: Proceedings of the Working Conference on Advanced Visual Interfaces. pp. 301-304. p. 301 cxxvii Baskerville R and Nandhakumar J (2007). “Activating and Perpetuating Virtual Teams: Now that We’re Mobile, Where do we Go?”. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication. 50.1: 17-34. p. 17 cxxviii Ibid, p. 1 cxxix Rosenblum L and Julier S (2009). “Practicing What We Preach: IEEE VR 2009 Virtual Program Committee Meeting”. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications. March/April: 80-83. p. 81 cxxx De Lucia A et al (2008). “SLMeeting: Supporting Collaborative Work in Second Life”. ACM AVI: Proceedings of the Working Conference on Advanced Visual Interfaces. pp. 301-304. p. 302 cxxxi Ibid, p. 302 cxxxii Shea-Schultz H and Fogarty J (2002). Online Learning Today: Strategies that Work. Berrett- Koehler Publishers Inc. San Francisco. p. 64 cxxxiii Shea-Schultz H and Fogarty J (2002). Online Learning Today: Strategies that Work. Berrett- Koehler Publishers Inc. San Francisco. p. 64 cxxxiv Linden Labs (2008). “Case Study: How Meeting in Second Life Transformed IBM’s Technology Elite into Virtual World Believers”. Linden Labs. p. 2 cxxxvcxxxv Ibid, p. 2 cxxxvi Morris S (2008). “Virtual Team Working: Making it Happen”. Industrial and Commercial Training. 40.3: 129-133. p. 130 cxxxvii Ibid, p. 130 cxxxviii Rosenblum L and Julier S (2009). “Practicing What We Preach: IEEE VR 2009 Virtual Program Committee Meeting”. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications. March/April: 80-83. p. 82 cxxxix Ibid, p. 82

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cxl Baskerville R and Nandhakumar J (2007). “Activating and Perpetuating Virtual Teams: Now that We’re Mobile, Where do we Go?”. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication. 50.1: 17-34. p. 18 cxli Nunamaker J et al (2009). “Principles for Effective Virtual Teamwork”. Communications of the ACM. 52.4: 113-117. p. 13, 17 cxlii Cohen S and Gibson C (2003). Virtual Teams that Work: Creating Conditions for Virtual Team Effectiveness. Wiley Publications. p. 24 cxliii Ibid, p. 22 cxliv Ibid, p. 22 cxlv Ibid, p. 8 cxlvi Ibid, p. 26 cxlvii Ibid, p. 27 cxlviii Ibid, p. 27-28 cxlix Ibid, p. 9 cl Ibid, p. 9 cli Ibid, p. 9 clii Nunamaker J et al (2009). “Principles for Effective Virtual Teamwork”. Communications of the ACM. 52.4: 113-117. p. 113-114 cliii Ibid, p. 113-114 cliv Ibid, p. 113-114 clv Cohen S and Gibson C (2003). Virtual Teams that Work: Creating Conditions for Virtual Team Effectiveness. Wiley Publications. p. 21, 24 clvi Baskerville R and Nandhakumar J (2007). “Activating and Perpetuating Virtual Teams: Now that We’re Mobile, Where do we Go?”. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication. 50.1: 17-34. p. 22 clvii Ibid, p 24 clviii Ibid, p. 25 clix Ibid, p. 17 clx Ibid, p. 25-34 clxi Ibid, p. 32-34