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Banyak penelitian yang telah dilakukan menunjukkan aplikasi antioksidan yang
ada, seperti eritropoetin (Epo), protektif terhadap keruskan neuron pada stroke
neonatal [116,117]. Baru-baru ini, Epo terlihat menurun kemudian meningkat
pada kejang neuron hipocampus setelah kejang neonatus yang diinduksi hipoksia
pada mencit.
Disfungsi sistem saraf yang diinduksi kejang: potensi interaksi antara
epileptogenesis dan perkembangan kecacatan neurokognitif
Walaupun terdapat kematian neuron minimal pada sebagian besar model kejang
neonatus, hasil jangka panjang kejang neonatus kemungkinan diakibatkan oleh
perubahan jaringan saraf yang diinduksi oleh kejang. Bukti dari teori ini berasal
dari beberapa penelitian yang menunjukkan kerusakan elastisitas dari sinaps dan
kerusakan potensi jangka panjang serta gangguan belajar di kemudian hari pada
mencit setelah kejang neonatus [119,120]. Periode neonatus menunjukkan tahapan
perkembangan alami elastisitas sinaps ketika belajar dalam waktu cepat [121,122].
Faktor yang berperan dalam perkembangan elastisitas sinaps tersebut adalah
keunggulan eksitasi dibanding inhibis, yang juga meningkatkan kerusakan akibat
kejang, seperti yang telah dijelaskan sebelumnya. Tetapi kejang yang terjadi
selama masa perkembangan yang sangat responsif ini menghubungkan proses
transfer sinyal yang dianggap sebagai pusat dari sinaps yang elastis. Terdapat
peningkatan yang signifikan dalam potensi sinaps yang menyerupai potensi
jangka panjang, dan aktivasi patologi ini mungkin membantu meningkatkan
epileptogenesis [123]. Sebagai tambahan, faktor pembekuan yang dimediasi GluR
berhubungan dengan fisiologi elastisitas sinaps yang mungkin di over aktivasi
oleh kejang, terutama pada otak yang sedang berkembang [123,124]. Penelitian
pada mencit menunjukkan adanya penurunan elastisitas sinaps pada jaringan saraf
seperti hippocamus setelah kejang pada usia dini, yang menunjukkan bahwa
elastisitas patologi mungkin menghambat elastisitas normal, mempengaruhi
gangguan belajar yang diobservasi setelah kejang pada usia dini [126,127].
Banyak model menunjukkan bahwa kejang neonatus mengubah elastisitas sinaps
[125], dan penelitian terbaru menggambarkan proses transfer signal molekuler
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yang berubah setelah kejang usia dini [126] [127]. Selain reseptor glutamat,
inhibitor reseptor GABAA juga dapat dipengaruhi oleh kejang usia dini, yang
menghasilkan gangguan fungsi jangka panjang. Penurunan fungsi awal dan segera
pada inhibitor sinaps GABAergik yang dimediasi oleh perubahan pasca translasi
pada subunit GABAA diketahui terjadi setelah kejang yang diinduksi hipoksia
pada mencit [126]. Kejang yang diinduksi Flurothyl menghasilkan kerusakan
selektif dari inhibis GABAergik dalam satu minggu [128]. Terdapat bukti bahwa
beberapa perubahan ini terjadi dibawah reseptor glutamat permeabel Ca2+ dan
transfer sinyal Ca2+ serta terapi pasca kejang dengan antagonis GluR atau inhibitor
fosfat mungkin mengganggu perubahan patologi yang menyebabkan gangguan
jangka panjang dan epilepsi [123,126].
Antikonvulsan dan otak yang sedang berkembang
Identifikasi mekanisme yang spesifik umur untuk kejang neonatus mengarah
kepada penggunaan target terapi baru. Perhatian harus diberikan ketika merancang
terapi baru, karena kemungkinan target merupakan hal yang penting untuk
perkembangan otak normal, walaupun berkontribusi pada hipereksitabilitas sel
saraf. Selama lebih dari dua abad yang lalu, data eksperimental menunjukkan
bahwa penggunaan fenobarbital memiliki efek samping pada morfologi sel saraf
yang dikultur yang diambil dari jaringan mencit, dan observasi ini meningkatkan
perhatian tentang risiko obat ini untuk terapi kejang pada neonatus [129] [130].
Penelitian selanjutnya pada bayi mencit menunjukkan bahwa terapi harian dengan
phenobarbital atau diazepam pada usia 1 bulan menunjukkan perubahan pada
metabolisme cerebral dan tingkah laku [131] [132].
Baru-baru ini, bukti klinis menunjukkan bahwa terapi sistemik yang singkat
dengan AED konvensional seperti phenobarbital, diazepam, phenytoin, dan
valproate semuanya meningkatkan apoptosis sel saraf pada bayi imatur hewan
pengerat yang normal [133]. Selain itu antagonis NMDAR juga meningkatkan
apoptosis pada perkembangan otak hewan pengerat [63]. Tetapi antagonis
AMPAR NBQX dan topiramate tidak menimbulkan efek samping seperti itu [63]
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[134], walaupun mekanisme untuk obat tersebut cenderung aman dibandingkan
dengan agen lain. Levetiracetam AED juga tidak memiliki efek apoptosis pada
otak yang sedang berkembang [135].
Meskipun adanya data-data untuk efek samping pada hewan pengerat, tidak ada
bukti adanya efek yang sama pada spesies lain dan tetap tidak diketahui apakah
mekanisme toksisitas ini relevan untuk bayi manusia. Selain itu interpretasi
penelitian toksisitas AED harus mempertimbangkan bahwa penelitian ini biasanya
dilakukan pada hewan normal dan pemakaian AED mungkin berbeda pada hewan
normal dan hewan dengan kejang.
Petunjuk di masa mendatang dan target terapi baru
Kejang neonatal refraktori tetap menjadi masalah klinis yang signifikan, dan tidak
ada pengobatan baru yang diperkenalkan selama beberapa dekade terakhir untuk
kondisi ini. Seperti yang telah dijelaskan diatas, banyak mekanisme baru dan
komponen kejang neonatus telah ditemukan. Hal ini menunjukkan adanya
kemungkinan-kemungkinan penting untuk strategi terapi baru pada populasi
neonatus beresiko kerusakan neurologis akut dan jangka panjang dari kejang
neonatal. Beberapa kelas utama agen dengan kemungkinan efek usia tertentu telah
muncul dan diringkas dalam Tabel 2. Ini termasuk modulator reseptor
neurotransmitter dan kanal ion serta transporter, senyawa anti-inflamasi,
neuroprotektor dan antioksidan. Kolaborasi interdisipliner antara neonatologi dan
ahli saraf neonatal adalah penting untuk keberhasilan studi tersebut. Penelitian
dasar mengungkapkan target terapi spesifik baru, target tersebut dapat divalidasi
dengan analisis sel dengan gen spesifik tertentu dan ekspresi protein pada sampel
otopsi manusia. Data eksperimental tentang potensi efikasi agen seperti
bumetanide, topiramate, dan levetiracetam menunjukkan hasil yang baik, namun
durasi penggunaan agen ini mungkin dibatasi oleh masalah keamanan terkait
dengan efek jangka panjang pada perkembangan otak. Uji coba hewan dan
penelitian pada manusia harus selaras untuk memahami bagaimana data keamanan
dan efikasi dari hewan pengerat dan primata non-manusia untuk memprediksi
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respon pada manusia. Sejumlah model kejang pada usia dini ada untuk penelitian
efek jangka panjang, dan ini juga bisa digunakan untuk mengetahui efek
pengobatan pada otak dan perkembangan kognitif. Uji klinis pada neonatus akan
sangat berkembang jika ada biomarker akurat untuk efikasi terapi akut dan
kronis, tetapi untuk saat ini hanya ada EEG. Pengukuran integritas metabolik otak
seperti spectroskcopy resonansi magnetik atau spectroscopy inframerah jarak
dekat, bila dikombinasikan dengan data EEG, dapat menunjukkan pengukuran
yang baik untuk efikasi terapi. Penggunaan pemantauan dengan EEG kontinu
dalam studi klinis terapi kejang neonatal akan menjadi penting. Penghentian
kejang merupakan tujuan terapeutik penting, namun peningkatan perkembangan
saraf juga merupakan hasil yang sangat penting.
Ucapan Terima Kasih
Penulis mengakui dukungan dari the National institutes of Health (grants RO1
NS31718 and DP1 OD003347, the Epilepsy Therapy Development Project, and a
grant from Parents Against Childhood Epilepsy. Additional support was provided
from the National institutes of Health Mental retardation and Developmental
Disabilities Center (P30 HD18655)
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Gambar 1. Elektroensefalografik kejang neonatal
Aktivitas listrik kejang dimulai di garis tengah wilayah tengah (CZ) dan kemudian
bergeser ke kiri wilayah tengah (C3). Menjelang akhir kejang, aktivitas listrik
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tetap di sebelah kiri wilayah tengah, wilayah tengah garis tengah menjadi tidak
terlibat. Aktivitas kejang listrik ini terjadi pada keadaan tidak adanya aktivitas
klinis kejang pada wanita dengan usia kehamilan 40 minggu dengan hipoksia-
iskemik ensefalopati. Wanita tersebut awalnya koma dan hipotonik dan, pada saat
dilakukan perekaman EEG, telah diobati dengan fenobarbital. (Dicetak ulang
dengan izin dari [136])
Gambar 2. Gambaran skematis profil perkembangan glutamat dan ekspresi dan
fungsi GABA reseptor
Periode perkembangan yang sama ditampilkan untuk tikus dan manusia di aksis x
atas dan bawah. Aktivasi depolarisasi reseptor GABA pada tikus di awal pertama
minggu setelah melahirkan dan pada manusia sampai dengan periode neonatal.
Penghambatan fungsional, secara bertahap mengalami perkembangan pada tikus
dan manusia. Sebelum pematangan penuh inhibisi yang dimediasi GABA, puncak
subtipe NMDA dan AMPA dari reseptor glutamat antara minggu pertama dan
minggu kedua setelah melahirkan pada tikus dan pada periode neonatal pada
manusia. Pengikatan reseptor kainate awalnya rendah dan secara bertahap naik ke
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tingkat dewasa pada minggu keempat setelah melahirkan. Kejang neonatal
muncul pada "periode kritis" dari synaptogenesis dan perkembangan otak.
Singkatan: AMPA, α-amino-3-hidroksi-5-metil-4-isoxazole propionat; GABA,
asam γ-aminobutyric; NMDA, N-methyl-D-aspartate; P, hari postnatal. Diambil
dari [45]. Izin diperoleh dari Nature Neurology **.
Gambar 3. Dinamika transmisi sinaptik pada sinaps kortikal pada periode
neonatus
Pada gambar adalah sinaps rangsang glutamatergic (panel kiri) dan inhibitor
sinaps GABAergic (panel kanan). Pelepasan presinaps glutamat merupakan hasil
depolarisasi (eksitasi) dari neuron postsynaptic (panel kiri) oleh aktivasi reseptor
NMDA dan AMPA. Sebaliknya, pelepasan GABA (panel kanan) merupakan hasil
hyperpolarization (penghambatan) ketika neuron postsinaps melepaskan Cl-
transporter KCC2 dalamjumlah yang cukup tapi depolarisasi (eksitasi) ketika Cl
intraseluler terakumulasi akibat aksi dilawan importir Cl- NKCC1. Reseptor
glutamatergic imatur (panel kiri) terdiri dari NR2B, NR2C, NR2D, dan NR3A
subunit yang lebih tinggi dari reseptor NMDA, meningkatkan masuknya Ca2 +
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dan Na + dibandingkan dengan sinaps yang matur. Selain itu, reseptor AMPA
relatif kekurangan subunit GluR2, sehingga relatif meningkatkan permeabilitas
Ca2 + dibandingkan dengan sinaps matur. Antagonis reseptor NMDA spesifik dan
antagonis reseptor AMPA mungkin terbukti menjadi target terapi spesifik usia
untuk pengembangan pengobatan. Aktivasi reseptor GABA biasanya
menghasilkan hiperpolarisasi dan inhibisi pada sinaps matur, oleh karena
coexpression dari NKCC1 dan KCC2, ekspresi KCC2 rendah pada periode
neonatus dibandingkan dengan di kemudian hari dan dengan demikian tingkat Cl-
menumpuk di intraseluler dan pembukaan reseptor GABA memungkinkan efluks
pasif Cl- keluar dari sel, sehingga terjadi depolarisasi paradoks. Selain itu,
ekspresi reseptor subunit GABAA pada otak imatur ditandai oleh lebih tingginya
subunit α4, yang secara fungsional terkait dengan berkurangnya sensitivitas
benzodiazepine. Kedua atribut dari reseptor GABA membuat agonis GABA
klasik seperti barbiturat dan benzodiazepin kurang efektif pada otak neonatus.
NKCC1 kanal blocker bumetanide memiliki efek antikonvulsan bila diberikan
dengan fenobarbital, menunjukkan efek sinergis.
Tabel 1
Berbagai etiologi dari kejang neonatus
Metabolik akut
Hipoglikemia
Hipokalsemia
Hipomagnesia
Hipo atau hipernatremia
Withdrawal syndrome yang berhubungan dengan penggunaan obat
Iatrogenik yang berhubungan dengan anestesi lokal
Kelainan metabolisme yang jarang pada neonatus
Cerebrovascular
Ensefalopati hipoksik iskemik
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Stroke iskemik arteri dan vena
Perdarahan intraserebral
Perdarahan intraventrikular
Perdarahan subdural
Perdarahan subarachnoid
Infeksi SSP
Meniningitis bakterial
Meningoensefalitis viral
Infeksi TORCH
Perkembangan
Disgenesis cerebral
Lain-lain
Kelainan sindrom genetik
Benign neonatal familial convulsion
Ensefalopati mioklonik awal
Tabel 2
Kandidat target potensial dan terpai dari eksperimen dan literatur
Profil Mekanisme target Pilihan terapi potensial
Perubahan akut Gen Chromatin acetylation
modifiers/histone
deacetylation inhibitors
(valproate)
Reseptor NMDA NMDA receptor
inhibitors
(memantine, felbamate)
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NR2B-specific inhibitors
(Ifenprodil),
Reseptor AMPA AMPAR antagonists
(topiramate, talampanel,
GYKI
compounds)
Transporter NKCCl Klorida NKCC1 inhibitor
(bumetanide
-in combination with
GABA
agonists phenobarbital,
benzodiazepines)
Reseptor GABA GABA receptor agonists
(phenobarbital,
benzodiazepines)
Fosfatase Phosphatase inhibitors
(FK-
506)
Kinase Kinase inhibitors
(CaMKII
inhibitor KN-62, PKA
inhibitor
KT5720, PKC inhibitor
chelerythrine)
Perubahan sub
akut
Inflamasi Anti-inflammatory
compounds
(ACTH), microglial
inactivators
(minocycline,
doxycycline)
Kerusakan sel saraf Erythropoietin,
antioxidants,
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NO inhibitors, NMDAR
antagonists (memantine)
Kanal HCN I(h)-blocker ZD7288
Reseptor CBI CB1 receptor antagonists
(SR
14176A, Rimonabant)
Perubahan
kronis
Sprouting Protein synthesis
inhibitors
(rapamycin,
cycloheximide)
Gliosis Anti-inflammatory
agents,
(Cox-2 inhibitors,
minocycline,
doxycycline)