TOPIK1PENGAJARAN SAINS SEKOLAH RENDAH

SINOPSISTopik ini membincangkan tentang pengajaran sains di sekolah sekolah rendah. Ia memberikan penekanan kepada komponen kurikulum sekolah rendah.HASIL PEMBELAJARANDiakhir topik ini pelajar akan boleh mencapai:1. Menerangkan matlamat pengajaran sains sekolah rendah.2.Menyenaraikan komponen-komponen yang ditekankan dalam pengajaran kurikulum sains sekolah-sekolah rendah.

KERANGKA TOPIK

MENGAPA SAINS PERLU DIAJAR DI SEKOLAH RENDAH?

Dua matlamat utama pendidikan sains sekolah rendah adalah;i. Untuk memupuk literasi saintifik bagi membolehkan seseorang membuat keputusan yang munasabah tentang isu isu sains yang berkaitan dengan kehidupan mereka.ii. Untuk menghasilkan profesional yang kompeten dalam pelbagai bidang saintifik.

Literasi saintifik adalah kapasiti atau keupayaan untuk menggunakan pengetahuan saintifik, untuk mengenalpasti soalan-soalan dan menghasilkan kesimpulan berasaskan bukti bagi tujuan memahami dan membantu membuat kesimpulan tentang alam semula jadi dan perubahan-perubahan yang dilakukan keatasnya melalui aktiviti manusia.Literasi saintifik akan membantu populasi untuk;1. Membina penyelesaian masalah yang berkesan1. Mengukuhkan kecintaan kepada alam semula jadi1. Mengelakkan menjadi mangsa dogmatism atau kesaksuban1. Kebolehan menggunakan teknologi-teknologi baru..Terkandung dalam Wawasan 2020 adalah cabaran bagi mencapai masyarakat yang saintifik dan progresif, satu masyarakat yang inovatif dan berpandangan jauh. Cabaran juga adalah bagi menghasilkan masyarakat yang bukan sahaja boleh menggunakan teknologi tetapi juga boleh menyumbang kepada tamadun saintifik dan teknologi dimasa hadapan.Kurikulum pendidikan sains sekolah rendah kita dibina selari dengan visi ini.

Matlamat kurikulum sains sekolah rendah adalah bagi membina minat pelajar dan kreativiti mereka melalui pengalaman seharian dan penyiasatan yang menggalakkan pemerolehan kemahiran saintifik dan kemahiran berfikir disamping memupuk sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni. Kurikulum sains sekolah rendah direka bentuk bagi merangsang sifat ingin tahu pelajar dan membina minat disamping membolehkan mereka mempelajari ilmu berkaitan diri mereka serta dunia disekeliling mereka melalui aktiviti-aktiviti berpusatkan pelajar. Ini akan menyediakan pengalaman-pengalaman yang berguna bagi meningkatkan minat dalam sains dan memberi peluang bagi pelajar memperolehi kemahiran saintifik dan kemahiran berfikit;

Penekanan dalam kurikulum sains sekolah rendah adalah pembelajaran melalui pengalaman yang releven kepadakehidupan harian pelajar,membina kemahiran saintifik dan kemahiran berfikir, mengaplikasikan prinsip-prinsip saintifik serta memupuk sikap saintifik dan nilai-nilai murni (Yeoh P.C. & Gan C.M. 2003 ms22)

Penerokaan sains bagi kanak-kanak adalah inkuiri sains menerokai bahan-bahan/ peristiwa, bertanya soalan-soalan, penyiasatan, merekod/ membentangkan hasil kerja mereka, membuat refleksi tentang apa yang telah mereka pelajari dan lakukan serta apakah maknanya . Semua ini akan membolehkan mereka mencipta teori-teori baru atau idea-idea tentang bagaimana dunia ini berfungsi. Kemahiran-kemahiran ini, sikap, dan cara berfikir adalah penting dalam banyak bidang pembelajaran seumur hidup. Di sekolah rendah, pelajar belajar kemahiran saintifik kerana:

0. Kaedah-kaedah ini digunakan oleh pasa saintis semasa melakukan penyelidikan dan mencari jawapan-jawapan kepada soalan-soalan tentang alam semula jadi. Melalui penggunaan kemahiran proses sains, pelajar-pelajar mempelajari sains dengan cara yang sama dengan cara seseorang saintis menjalankan kajian.

0. Pembelajaran bermakna berlaku bila pelajar menggunakan kemahiran proses sains bagi meneroka persekitaran dan mendapatkan maklumat dari internet , memandu mereka dalam proses membina pengetahuan mereka sendiri. 0. Pengetahuan dan kemahiran ini juga penting bukan saja dalam pembelajaran subjek sains tetapi juga boleh digunakan merentas disiplin dan pengalaman-pengalaman semasa menyelesaikan masalah personal juga bagi menyelesaikan masalah.

0. Teori-teori saintifik dan prinsip-prinsip ini boleh diubahsuai atau digantikan bila didapati tidak konsisten dengan bukti-bukti yang baru. Tidak seperti Pengetahuan saintifik, kemahiran proses tidak akan ketinggalan zaman.

(Wan Yoke Kum et. al, 2003 ms 33)

Pengajaran kemahiran saintifik perlu disepadukan ke dalam kandungan sains. Kemahiran proses Sains perlu diajar secara eksplisit di peringkat permulaan dan dikukuhkan melalui latihan lanjut. Kemahiran ini sepatutnya diperkenalkan secara berperingkat-peringkat sesuai dengan peringkat perkembangan kognitif pelajar. Pada tahap satu. pelajar dikehendaki mempelajari asas kemahiran proses sains . Pada peringkat kedua pula, kemahiran proses asas akan dilanjutkan untuk diperkukuhkan dengan memperkenalkan kemahiran proses bersepadu.Berikan faedah literasi saintifik kepada populasi dunia.

Tutorial 1

Dengan merujuk kepada artikel Pemikiran Aras Tinggi (HOTS) bincangkan bagaimana kita mengimplemen HOTS dalam pengajaran sains sekolah rendah.

Tutorial 2Bincangkan bagaimana sepuluh mitos tentang sains membuka minda anda tentang salah konsep yang mungkin ada pada anda.Berikan satu contoh salah konsep yang dapat menjelaskan setiap mitos.

Find the 5-E instructional Model and prepare a ppt. presentation.

Cari model pengajaran 5E dan sediakan satu persembahan power point.

Skamp, K. (Ed.), (2004) Teaching primary science constructively (2nd ed.).Melbourne, Australia: Thomson Learning.

Higher order thinking

Russell Tytler, March 28, 2004

There is a lot of focus currently on the notion of higher order thinking, particularly in relation to the Middle Years concerns, focusing on engaging students in meaningful learning. Terms such as the Thinking Curriculum are used to describe a school focus on deeper level ideas. Higher order thinking is used as a term to describe a number of related ideas, all essentially held to be in contrast to rote learning, learning of facts, superficial thinking etc. Schemes such Blooms taxonomy have been used to order knowledge forms in a hierarchy, with information at the bottom (Bloom called it knowledge but the term tends to have a wider meaning these days), then comprehension, then higher levels such as application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The three tiered intellect uses similar terms, with higher order thinking being associated with words such as interprets, analyses, reflects, evaluates. Also associated with higher level thinking are dimensions of creativity, or divergent thinking. Emphasising, in science tasks, such things as creativity, imagination, flexibility all aim at developing in students a capacity to think through ideas and apply them to a range of contexts, to think outside the square and to think critically. Higher level thinking is also associated with investigative practices in science, and with problem solving. Such behaviours and knowledge as asking investigable questions, designing investigations or measurement procedures, critically evaluating evidence, thinking of ways to test ideas etc. are all part of what we would hope an engaged and resourceful student to be doing. The first two SIS Components of effective teaching and learning are closely related to higher level thinking. These are given below, with links to the science education literature.

1. Encouraging students to actively engage with ideas and evidenceComponent 1 is a key characteristic of effective teaching and learning. It is linked with a number of important ideas that appear in the science education research literature, and in curriculum and innovation change projects.

The key idea embodied in this Component is that real learning is an active process that involves students being challenged, and challenging each other, rather than accepting received wisdom and practicing its application. A predominant image projected by this Component is thus one of the active, searching mind. The underlying logic of this Component is consistent with constructivist insights into learning. This does not in any way diminish, however, the role of the teacher. If anything it makes teachers roles more complex and difficult, in asking them to encourage students to express their ideas, but to maintain a high standard of challenge and attention to evidence based on scientific traditions. The Component combines two ideas that learning involves activity and engagement, and that scientific processes fundamentally involve argument from evidence. It is hard, in a practising science classroom situation, to separate these notions.

Related ideas in the science education literature:

Sharing intellectual control, or student centredness The idea that students ideas be treated with respect is well established in research on students conceptions and research on learning in science. The Monash University Extended PD materials, now embedded within the SISPD program, emphasised this control aspect. One cannot expect students to be engaged with a pre-packaged program entirely dictated by teachers understandings, and this Component asks that teachers take some risks in acknowledging that students, if they are to learn, must be given a measure of control over the ideas that are discussed.Inquiry based learning This is a term much in vogue in the U.S., implying that science teaching and learning must be based on students actively exploring and investigating and questioning. This is different to discovery learning which, in its pure form, implied somehow that students could learn science simply by undertaking appropriate practical investigations, and under-represented the critical role of the teacher in structuring and responding to student experiences. A related phrase often used in primary science education is hands-on, minds-on science. It is the minds-on part that is referred to by this Component. Student autonomy, and responsibility for learning These ideas emphasise both the active and intentional nature of learning and the purpose of schooling in promoting autonomous adults. Engagement is a prior condition for both. The Middle Years concern with student engagement with ideas and with schooling is also linked to this Component. The Component should not be thought about, however, simply in terms of motivation or a willingness to join in. It focuses clearly on ideas.Maximising student-student interaction A video study of mathematics and science teachers (Clark, 2001) found that the key determinant of a rich learning environment was the amount of high quality student student dialogue. This could be taken as one of the critical features of engagement with ideas.Community of learners This idea of a class or group as a community dedicated to particular forms of learning sits comfortably with Component 1, since engagement with ideas and evidence can be interpreted as a communal enterprise. Social constructivism, or socio cultural theory, is also linked with this idea.Argumentation there is growing interest in idea that the ability to frame and respond to argument is an important focus for science education. Science as it is practised in the community is characterized by argument based on evidence.Science processes and concepts of evidence The teaching of science processes has a long history in science education. These are sometimes called skills, but in fact there is a good deal of knowledge associated with things like experimental design, measurement principles, or analysis. Evidence is handled in science in particular ways (eg. principles of sampling, or variable control, or measurement procedures) and learning how this occurs in a more formal way is a part of this first Component. The teaching and learning focus associated with this would include being taught how to do things like sample biological data, control variables, set up tables, deal with measurement error etc. These may be taught explicitly, but teaching for an understanding of the way evidence is used would imply that students need to learn to make decisions about design, measurement and analysis. Open ended investigations form an important end of the practical work spectrum.

2. Challenging students to develop meaningful understandings

Component 2 raises the questions what does it mean to understand something in science, and what is meaningful? Neither are straightforward questions. The teachers who were originally interviewed to develop the Components talked of deeper level understandings, or understandings that would be revisited in different situations to enrich and challenge.

Related ideas in the science education literature:

Student conceptions The research into student conceptions shows clearly that students come to any science topic with prior ideas that will often contradict the science version of understanding, that can interfere with learning. Learning, and gaining understanding should be viewed often as a shift in perspective rather than something implanted over nothing. The conceptual change literature, which emphasises probes of understanding, and challenge activities, is thus relevant to this Component. Lesson and topic structure becomes important for the development of understanding.Metacognition The work of the PEEL project has important links to this Component, focusing on student learning strategies, and control over learning. If students are to establish deeper level understandings they need to be helped to develop good learning habits, and to monitor the adequacy of their own understandings. These ideas underlie the thinking curriculum focus of some of the Middle Years projects.Higher order thinking Many writers have made the distinction between shallow and deep, or low and higher order thinking. Blooms taxonomy identified higher order thinking as associated with the application and evaluation of ideas. Ideas such as the three story intellect attempt a similar hierarchy.Deeper or wider? A commitment to looking below the surface is one way of describing this Component. Another aspect of meaningful understandings is the insight that ideas are tools to be applied rather than concepts to be arrived at. The ability to use an idea in interpreting the world is a critical part of understanding.Divergent thinking Part of what a meaningful understanding should be involves the ability to use it to solve unexpected problems, or to generate a variety of related ideas. The ability to think divergently or laterally is part of what a meaningful understanding is.Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) In order to support students in developing understandings, it is essential for teachers to be knowledgeable themselves (content knowledge), not so they can tell, but so they can listen and challenge. The other form of knowledge needed is that of how students learn particular concepts the difficulties they experience and the different ways they may interpret the science idea. We call this PCK.

Improving Middle Years Mathematics and Science: Components relevant toHigher Order thinking

Recently (in early 2004) we have been engaged in developing a set of Components of effective teaching and learning in mathematics and science, and examples to support two components dealing with higher order thinking are given below.

3. Students are challenged to extend their understandings

Students engage with conceptually challenging content such that they develop higher order understandings of key ideas and processes.3.1 Subject matter is conceptually complex and intriguing, but accessible3.2 Tasks challenge students to explore, question and reflect on key ideas3.3 The teacher clearly signals high expectations for each studentThis Component is demonstrated when: Students are challenged to reflect on their response to tasks

Open questions are asked that call for interpretive responses

The teacher poses questions and hypothetical situations to move students beyond superficial approaches

Students are asked to represent their understandings in a variety of ways Including frequent open ended problems and explorations

The teacher provides experiences and poses questions that challenge students understandings, and encourages them to apply ideas to unfamiliar situations Stimulus materials are provided that challenge students ideas and encourage discussion and ongoing exploration Historical case studies are used to explore how major science ideas developed Higher order tasks involving the generation, application, analysis and synthesis of ideas, are well represented, for example, by the teacher using Blooms taxonomy in planning. Students are provided with questions or challenges as the impetus for learning and encouraging and supporting students to construct their own responses to such questions Open-ended problems or tasks are set that require divergent responses and provide the opportunity for solutions of differing kinds to be developed. Students are encouraged to examine critically and even challenge information provided by the teacher, a textbook, a newspaper, etc. The teacher sets learning challenges that require students to analyse, evaluate and create The teacher uses higher order thinking tools when planning activities to allow for multiple entry points and to develop higher order thinking skills such as synthesis, evaluation etc.

The Component is NOT demonstrated when:

Investigations or projects run without significant class discussion of the underlying science. Class activities which are fun, with surprising outcomes, but without follow up of ideas in subsequent lessons, or framing of the ideas behind the activities. Science concepts are treated as things to be learnt, emphasising formal definitions.

There is a presumption that it is the teachers role to control what is to be learnt, and how it is to be learnt. Classroom work is constrained or recipe like, without room for discussion or debate of purpose or methods Lesson plans contain too much material to allow sustained discussions in response to student questions Activities focus on having fun without a real focus on conceptual understandings

5. Students are encouraged to see themselves as mathematical and scientific thinkers

5.1 Students are explicitly supported to engage with the processes of open-ended investigation and problem solvingThis Component is demonstrated when: The teacher plans to strategically build opportunities for students to develop hypotheses in practical work, and to extend and question interpretations The teacher encourages students to raise questions in class, arising out of observations, or experience. Students are encouraged to make decisions in practical investigations concerning hypotheses to be explored, experimental design, measurement and recording techniques, analysis and interpretation.

This component is NOT demonstrated when:

Students are given a choice of investigations to carry out, but without training in appropriate experimental techniques and with no group commitment to the ideas being tested. A class experiment focuses on control of variables (fair testing) without a clear conceptual proposition. For instance, the permeability of sand, loam and clay soil is tested, with attention paid to controlling for water, amount of soil, technique, but without discussing the purpose or the reasons why they might differ.

Practical work is recipe-like, without room for discussion and debate of purpose, methods, analysis.

5.2 Students engage in mathematical/scientific reasoning and argumentationThis sub-component is demonstrated when:

Stimulus materials are provided that challenge students ideas and encouraging discussion, speculation, and ongoing exploration Time is allowed for discussions to arise naturally and be followed in class, and encouraging investigations to resolve questions The teacher shares intellectual control with students The learning program includes frequent open ended investigations or short-term open explorations\ The teacher encourages discussion of evidence, including disconfirming evidence such as anomalies in experimental work, in text book explanations, in observations, or in public reports of science\ The teacher provides students with questions or challenges as the impetus for learning and encourages and supports students to construct their own responses to such questions Students are encouraged to challenge or support or amplify others contributions.

The sub-component is NOT demonstrated when:

There is a strong focus on ensuring content coverage, as distinct from understanding Lesson plans are strictly followed, with too much material to be covered to allow divergent discussions in response to student questions or comments.

Students work mainly individually, with not much whole-class or small- group discussion. Class discussion is dominated by the teachers voice. Teacher questions are mainly closed, with a particular response in mind. There is a strong focus on ensuring content coverage, as distinct from understanding. Intellectual control is firmly maintained by the teacher.

Examples to illustrate the Component:

The history of science ideas is strongly represented.Eg. A science topic on disease focuses on the history of our understanding of the bacterial nature of infection, to emphasise the power of science insights, and the way evidence is used to test and verify theories in science. Attention is paid to the processes of hypothesis generation and experimental design Eg. Yvonne ran an animal behaviour unit for her Year 1 class. They discussed, using observations of a classroom pet rat, the difference between observation and inference. They learnt the technique of time sampling of animal position and behaviour using birds in a cage, and one, then two rats in an enclosure. Following discussions about the survival implications of behaviour, they then examined crickets and came up with a class list of questions about cricket behaviour, or structure and function. Pairs of students designed, carried out and reported on a chosen question, using a template that required presentation of data in two formats, and an evaluation of the generality of the findings. The focus in the discussion continually referred back to the adaptive purpose of particular behaviours. Eg. Year 10 students studying genetics investigate recent claims there has been cross-breeding of genetically modified soy into local crops. They look at the suggested mechanism for cross-pollination, and study genetic techniques, to come up with suggestions about what controls should be in place.

Planning is flexible enough so that student ideas and questions can be genuinely followed up, perhaps by further investigation. Eg. Julies Year 4 class raised the question about how long a ballpoint pen would last. They discussed how you would find out, then arranged a comparative investigation with different brands, measuring the length of line with appropriate controls. Eg. During a genetics unit, the question of genetically modified food captures student interest and leads to a debate informed by independent research using the web.

Anomalous results from experiments are discussed openly in the class. Eg. Craigs Year 8 class found an experiment culturing bacteria gave anomalous results. Before handing the cultures back to groups he displayed them, then led a discussion in which they discussed the surprise results to come up with some possible reasons and an evaluation of the adequacy of the controls they had put in place. Eg. A class uses de Bonos thinking hats technique to fully explore the greenhouse effect. Eg. A unit is planned using the interactive approach, whereby students questions are discussed and refined to form the basis of investigations forming the core of the unit.

Current issues are discussed in class, which encourage students to raise questions about evidence, or the ideas underlying such issues. Eg. Methods of responding to a contemporary outbreak of foot and mouth are discussed and debated, using newspaper analyses. Eg. The nutritional value of childrens lunches is discussed, using evidence from a resource book on dietary principles. Eg. In a unit on road safety, evidence related to the wearing of seat belts, or of bicycle helmets, is debated in the context of public policy. Open-ended tasks are set that encourage divergent, creative thinking Eg. Students are asked to use their science understandings to design a system, or technological device, such as an automated plant nursery, or method of analysing the movement of a netball player. Eg. Students are challenged using what would happen if.. questions (If gravity on earth was stronger, if we could clone dinosaurs), or take place in hypotheticals.

Tutorial 2

TEN MYTHS OF SCIENCE: REEXAMINING WHAT WE THINK WE KNOW...W. McComas 1996

This article addresses and attempts to refute several of the most widespread and enduring misconceptions held by students regarding the enterprise of science. The ten myths discussed include the common notions that theories become laws, that hypotheses are best characterized as educated guesses, and that there is a commonly-applied scientific method. In addition, the article includes discussion of other incorrect ideas such as the view that evidence leads to sure knowledge, that science and its methods provide absolute proof, and that science is not a creative endeavor. Finally, the myths that scientists are objective, that experiments are the sole route to scientific knowledge and that scientific conclusions are continually reviewed conclude this presentation. The paper ends with a plea that instruction in and opportunities to experience the nature of science are vital in preservice and inservice teacher education programs to help unseat the myths of science. Myths are typically defined as traditional views, fables, legends or stories. As such, myths can be entertaining and even educational since they help people make sense of the world. In fact, the explanatory role of myths most likely accounts for their development, spread and persistence. However, when fact and fiction blur, myths lose their entertainment value and serve only to block full understanding. Such is the case with the myths of science. Scholar Joseph Campbell (1968) has proposed that the similarity among many folk myths worldwide is due to a subconscious link between all peoples, but no such link can explain the myths of science. Misconceptions about science are most likely due to the lack of philosophy of science content in teacher education programs, the failure of such programs to provide and require authentic science experiences for preservice teachers and the generally shallow treatment of the nature of science in the precollege textbooks to which teachers might turn for guidance. As Steven Jay Gould points out in The Case of the Creeping Fox Terrier Clone (1988), science textbook writers are among the most egregious purveyors of myth and inaccuracy. The fox terrier mentioned in the title refers to the classic comparison used to express the size of the dawn horse, the tiny precursor to the modem horse. This comparison is unfortunate for two reasons. Not only was this horse ancestor much bigger than a fox terrier, but the fox terrier breed of dog is virtually unknown to American students. The major criticism leveled by Gould is that once this comparison took hold, no one bothered to check its validity or utility. Through time, one author after another simply repeated the inept comparison and continued a tradition that has made many science texts virtual clones of each other on this and countless other points. In an attempt to provide a more realistic view of science and point out issues on which science teachers should focus, this article presents and discusses 10 widely-held, yet incorrect ideas about the nature of science. There is no implication that all students, or most teachers for that matter, hold all of these views to be true, nor is the list meant to be the definitive catolog. Cole (1986) and Rothman (1992) have suggested additional misconceptions worthy of consideration. However, years of science teaching and the review of countless texts has substantiated the validity of the inventory presented here.

Myth 1: Hypotheses become theories which become lawsThis myth deals with the general belief that with increased evidence there is a developmental sequence through which scientific ideas pass on their way to final acceptance. Many believe that scientific ideas pass through the hypothesis and theory stages and finally mature as laws. A former U.S. president showed his misunderstanding of science by saying that he was not troubled by the idea of evolution because it was "just a theory." The president's misstatement is the essence of this myth; that an idea is not worthy of consideration until "lawness" has been bestowed upon it. The problem created by the false hierarchical nature inherent in this myth is that theories and laws are very different kinds of knowledge. Of course there is a relationship between laws and theories, but one simply does not become the other--no matter how much empirical evidence is amassed. Laws are generalizations, principles or patterns in nature and theories are the explanations of those generalizations (Rhodes & Schaible, 1989; Homer & Rubba, 1979; Campbell, 1953). For instance, Newton described the relationship of mass and distance to gravitational attraction between objects with such precision that we can use the law of gravity to plan spaceflights. During the Apollo 8 mission, astronaut Bill Anders responded to the question of who was flying the spacecraft by saying, "I think that Issac Newton is doing most of the driving fight now." (Chaikin, 1994, p. 127). His response was understood by all to mean that the capsule was simply following the basic laws of physics described by Isaac Newton years centuries earlier. The more thorny, and many would say more interesting, issue with respect to gravity is the explanation for why the law operates as it does. At this point, there is no well. accepted theory of gravity. Some physicists suggest that gravity waves are the correct explanation for the law of gravity, but with clear confirmation and consensus lacking, most feel that the theory of gravity still eludes science. Interestingly, Newton addressed the distinction between law and theory with respect to gravity. Although he had discovered the law of gravity, he refrained from speculating publically about its cause. In Principial, Newton states" . . . I have not been able to discover the cause of those properties of gravity from phenomena, and I frame no hypothesis . . ." " . . . it is enough that gravity does really exist, and act according to the laws which we have explained . . ." (Newton, 1720/1946, p. 547).

Myth 2: A hypothesis is an educated guessThe definition of the term hypothesis has taken on an almost mantra- like life of its own in science classes. If a hypothesis is always an educated guess as students typically assert, the question remains, "an educated guess about what?" The best answer for this question must be, that without a clear view of the context in which the term is used, it is impossible to tell. The term hypothesis has at least three definitions, and for that reason, should be abandoned, or atleast used with caution. For instance, when Newton said that he framed no hypothesis as to the cause of gravity he was saying that he had no speculation about an explanation of why the law of gravity operates as it does. In this case, Newton used the term hypothesis to represent an immature theory. As a solution to the hypothesis problem, Sonleitner (1989) suggested that tentative or trial laws be called generalizing hypotheses with provisional theories referred to as explanatory hypotheses. Another approach would be to abandon the word hypothesis altogether in favor of terms such as speculative law or speculative theory. With evidence, generalizing hypotheses may become laws and speculative theories become theories, but under no circumstances do theories become laws. Finally, when students are asked to propose a hypothesis during a laboratory experience, the term now means a prediction. As for those hypotheses that are really forecasts, perhaps they should simply be called what they are, predictions.

Myth 3: A general and universal scientific method existsThe notion that a common series of steps is followed by all research scientists must be among the most pervasive myths of science given the appearance of such a list in the introductory chapters of many precollege science texts. This myth has been part of the folklore of school science ever since its proposal by statistician Karl Pearson (1937). The steps listed for the scientific method vary from text to text but usually include, a) define the problem, b) gather background information, c) form a hypothesis, d) make observations, e) test the hypothesis, and f) draw conclusions. Some texts conclude their list of the steps of the scientific method by listing communication of results as the final ingredient. One of the reasons for the widespread belief in a general scientific method may be the way in which results are presented for publication in research journals. The standardized style makes it appear that scientists follow a standard research plan. Medawar (1990) reacted to the common style exhibited by research papers by calling the scientific paper a fraud since the final journal report rarely outlines the actual way in which the problem was investigated. Philosophers of science who have studied scientists at work have shown that no research method is applied universally (Carey, 1994; Gibbs & Lawson, 1992; Chalmers, 1990; Gjertsen, 1989). The notion of a single scientific method is so pervasive it seems certain that many students must be disappointed when they discover that scientists do not have a framed copy of the steps of the scientific method posted high above each laboratory workbench. Close inspection will reveal that scientists approach and solve problems with imagination, creativity, prior knowledge and perseverance. These, of course, are the same methods used by all problem-solvers. The lesson to be learned is that science is no different from other human endeavors when puzzles are investigated. Fortunately, this is one myth that may eventually be displaced since many newer texts are abandoning or augmenting the list in favor of discussions of methods of science.

Myth 4: Evidence accumulated carefully will result in sure knowledgeAll investigators, including scientists, collect and interpret empirical evidence through the process called induction. This is a technique by which individual pieces of evidence are collected and examined until a law is discovered or a theory is invented. Useful as this technique is, even a preponderance of evidence does not guarantee the production of valid knowledge because of what is called the problem of induction. Induction was first formalized by Frances Bacon in the 17th century. In his book, Novum Organum (1620/ 1952), Bacon advised that facts be assimilated without bias to reach a conclusion. The method of induction he suggested is the principal way in which humans traditionally have produced generalizations that permit predictions. What then is the problem with induction? It is both impossible to make all observations pertaining to a given situation and illogical to secure all relevant facts for all time, past, present and future. However, only by making all relevant observations throughout all time, could one say that a final valid conclusion had been made. This is the problem of induction. On a personal level, this problem is of little consequence, but in science the problem is significant. Scientists formulate laws and theories that are supposed to hold true in all places and for all time but the problem of induction makes such a guarantee impossible. The proposal of a new law begins through induction as facts are heaped upon other relevant facts. Deduction is useful in checking the validity of a law. For example, if we postulate that all swans are white, we can evaluate the law by predicting that the next swan found will also be white. If it is, the law is supported, but not proved as will be seen in the discussion of another science myth. Locating even a single black swan will cause the law to be called into question. The nature of induction itself is another interesting aspect associated with this myth. If we set aside the problem of induction momentarily, there is still the issue of how scientists make the final leap from the mass of evidence to the conclusion. In an idealized view of induction, the accumulated evidence will simply result in the production of a new law or theory in a procedural or mechanical fashion. In reality, there is no such method. The issue is far more complex and interesting --than that. The final creative leap from evidence to scientific knowledge is the focus of another myth of science.

Myth 5: Science and its methods provide absolute proofThe general success of the scientific endeavor suggests that its products must be valid. However, a hallmark of scientific knowledge is that it is subject to revision when new information is presented. Tentativeness is one of the points that differentiates science from other forms of knowledge. Accumulated evidence can provide support, validation and substantiation for a law or theory, but will never prove those laws and theories to be true. This idea has been addressed by Homer and Rubba (1978) and Lopnshinsky (1993). The problem of induction argues against proof in science, but there is another element of this myth worth exploring. In actuality, the only truly conclusive knowledge produced by science results when a notion is falsified. What this means is that no matter what scientific idea is considered, once evidence begins to accumulate, at least we know that the notion is untrue. Consider the example of the white swans discussed earlier. One could search the world and see only white swans, and arrive at the generalization that "all swans are white. " However, the discovery of one black swan has the potential to overturn, or at least result in modifications of,this proposed law of nature. However, whether scientists routinely try to falsify their notions and how much contrary evidence it takes for a scientist's mind to change are issues worth exploring.

Myth 6: Science is procedural more than creativeWe accept that no single guaranteed method of science can account for the success of science, but realize that induction, the collection and interpretation of individual facts providing the raw materials for laws and theories, is at the foundation of most scientific endeavors. This awareness brings with it a paradox. If induction itself is not a guaranteed method for arriving at conclusions, how do scientists develop useful laws and theories? Induction makes use of individual facts that are collected, analyzed and examined. Some observers may perceive a pattern in these data and propose a law in response, but there is no logical or procedural method by which the pattern is suggested. With a theory, the issue is much the same. Only the creativity of the individual scientist permits the discovery of laws and the invention of theories. If there truly was a single scientific method, two individuals with the same expertise could review the same facts and reach identical conclusions. There is no guarantee of this because the range and nature of creativity is a personal attribute. Unfortunately, many common science teaching orientations and methods serve to work against the creative element in science. The majority of laboratory exercises, for instance, are verification activities. The teacher discusses what will happen in the laboratory, the manual provides step-bystep directions, and the student is expected to arrive at a particular answer. Not only is this approach the antithesis of the way in which science actually operates, but such a portrayal must seem dry, clinical and uninteresting to many students. In her book, They're Not Dumb, They're Different (1990) Shiela Tobias argues that many capable and clever students reject science as a career because they are not given an opportunity to see it as an exciting and creative pursuit. The moral in Tobias' thesis is that science itself may be impoverished when students who feel a need for a creative outlet eliminate it as a potential career because of the way it is taught.

Myth 7: Science and its methods can answer all questions.Philosophers of science have found it useful to refer to the work of Karl Popper (1968) and his principle of falsifiability to provide an operational definition of science. Popper believed that only those ideas that are potentially falsifiable are scientific ideas. For instance, the law of gravity states that more massive objects exert a stronger gravitational attraction than do objects with less mass when distance is held constant. This is a scientific law because it could be falsified if newly-discovered objects operate differently with respect to gravitational attraction. In contrast, the core idea among creationists is that species were place on earth fully-formed by some supernatural entity. Obviously, there is no scientific method by which such a belief could be shown to be false. Since this special creation view is impossible to falsify, it is not science at all and the term creation science is an oxymoron. Creation science is a religious belief and as such, does not require that it be falsifiable. Hundreds of years ago thoughtful theologians and scientists carved out their spheres of influence and have since coexisted with little acrimony. Today, only those who fail to understand the distinction between science and religion confuse the rules, roles, and limitations of these two important world views. It should now be clear that some questions simply must not be asked of scientists. During a recent creation science trial for instance, Nobel laureates were asked to sign a statement about the nature of science to provide some guidance to the court. These famous scientists responded resoundingly to support such a statement; after all they were experts in the realm of science (Klayman, Slocombe, Lehman, & Kaufman, 1986). Later, those interested in citing expert opinion in the abortion debate asked scientists to issue a statement regarding their feelings on this issue. Wisely, few participated. Science cannot answer the moral and ethical questions engendered by the matter of abortion. Of course, scientists as individuals have personal opinions about many issues, but as a group, they must remain silent if those issues are outside the realm of scientific inquiry. Science simply cannot address moral, ethical, aesthetic, social and metaphysical questions.

Myth 8. Scientists are particularly objectiveScientists are no different in their level of objectivity than are other professionals. They are careful in the analysis of evidence and in the procedures applied to arrive at conclusions. With this admission, it may seem that this myth is valid, but contributions from both the philosophy of science and psychology reveal that there are at least three major reasons that make complete objectivity impossible.Many philosophers of science support Popper's (1963) view that science can advance only through a string of what he called conjectures and refutations. In other words, scientists should propose laws and theories as conjectures and then actively work to disprove or refute those ideas. Popper suggests that the absence of contrary evidence, demonstrated through an active program of refutation, will provide the best support available. It may seem like a strange way of thinking about verification, but the absence of disproof is considered support. There is one major problem with the idea of conjecture and refutation. Popper seems to have proposed it as a recommendation for scientists, not as a description of what scientists do. From a philosophical perspective the idea is sound, but there are no indications that scientists actively practice programs to search for disconfirming evidence. Another aspect of the inability of scientists to be objective is found in theory-laden observation, a psychological notion (Hodson, 1986). Scientists, like all observers, hold a myriad of preconceptions and biases about the way the world operates. These notions, held in the subconscious, affect everyone's ability to make observations. It is impossible to collect and interpret facts without any bias. There have been countless cases in the history of science in which scientists have failed to include particular observations in their final analyses of phenomena. This occurs, not because of fraud or deceit, but because of the prior knowledge possessed by the individual. Certain facts either were not seen at all or were deemed unimportant based on the scientists's prior knowledge. In earlier discussions of induction, we postulated that two individuals reviewing the same data would not be expected to reach the same conclusions. Not only does individual creativity play a role, but the issue of personal theory-laden observation further complicates the situation. This lesson has clear implications for science teaching. Teachers typically provide learning experiences for students without considering their prior knowledge. In the laboratory, for instance, students are asked to perform activities, make observations and then form conclusions. There is an expectation that the conclusions formed will be both self-evident and uniform. In other words, teachers anticipate that the data will lead all pupils to the same conclusion. This could only happen if each student had the same exact prior conceptions and made and evaluate observations using identical schemes. This does not happen in science nor does it occur in the science classroom. Related to the issue of theory-based observations is the allegiance to the paradigm. Thomas Kuhn (1970), in his ground-breaking analysis of the history of science, shows that scientists work within a research tradition called a paradigm. This research tradition, shared by those working in a given discipline, provides clues to the questions worth investigating, dictates what evidence is admissible and prescribes the tests and techniques that are reasonable.

Although the paradigm provides direction to the research it may also stifle or limit investigation. Anything that confines the research endeavor necessarily limits objectivity. While there is no conscious desire on the part of scientists to limit discussion, it is likely that some new ideas in science are rejected because of the paradigm issue. When research reports are submitted for publication they are reviewed by other members of the discipline. Ideas from outside the paradigm are liable to be eliminated from consideration as crackpot or poor science and thus do not appear in print. Examples of scientific ideas that were originally rejected because they fell outside the accepted paradigm include the sun-centered solar system, warm-bloodedness in dinosaurs, the germ-theory of disease, and continental drift.

When first proposed early in this century by Alfred Wegener, the idea of moving continents, for example, was vigorously rejected. Scientists were not ready to embrace a notion so contrary to the traditional teachings of their discipline. Continental drift was finally accepted in the 1960s with the proposal of a mechanism or theory to explain how continental plates move (Hallam, 1975 and Menard, 1986). This fundamental change in the earth sciences, called a revolution by Kuhn, might have occurred decades earlier had it not been for the strength of the paradigm. It would be unwise to conclude a discussion of scientific paradigms on a negative note. Although the examples provided do show the contrary aspects associated with paradigm-fixity, Kuhn would argue that the blinders created by allegiance to the paradigm help keep scientists on track. His review of the history of science demonstrates that paradigms are responsible for far more successes in science than delays.

Myth 9: Experiments are the principle route to scientific knowledgeThroughout their school science careers, students are encouraged to associate science with experimentation. Virtually all hands-on experiences that students have in science class is called experiments even if it would be more accurate to refer to these exercises as technical procedures, explorations or activities. True experiments involve carefully orchestrated procedures along with control and test groups usually with the goal of establishing a cause and effect relationship. Of course, true experimentation is a useful tool in science, but is not the sole route to knowledge. Many note-worthy scientists have used non-experimental techniques to advance knowledge. In fact, in a number of science disciplines, true experimentation is not possible because of the inability to control variables. Many fundamental discoveries in astronomy are based on extensive observations rather than experiments. Copernicus and Kepler changed our view of the solar system using observational evidence derived from lengthy and detailed observations frequently contributed by other scientists, but neither performed experiments. Charles Darwin punctuated his career with an investigatory regime more similar to qualitative techniques used in the social sciences than the experimental techniques commonly associated with the natural sciences. For his most revolutionary discoveries, Darwin recorded his extensive observations in notebooks annotated by speculations and thoughts about those observations. Although Darwin supported the inductive method proposed by Bacon, he was aware that observation without speculation or prior understanding was both ineffective and impossible. The techniques advanced by Darwin have been widely used by scientists Goodall and Nossey in their primate studies. Scientific knowledge is gained in a variety of ways including observation, analysis, speculation, library investigation and experimentation.Myth 10: All work in science is reviewed to keep the process honest.Frequently, the final step in the traditional scientific method is that researchers communicate their results so that others may learn from and evaluate their research. When completing laboratory reports, students are frequently told to present their methods section so clearly that others could repeat the activity. The conclusion that students will likely draw from this request is that professional scientists are also constantly reviewing each other's experiments to check up on each other. Unfortunately, while such a check and balance system would be useful, the number of findings from one scientist checked by others is vanishingly small. In reality, most scientists are simply too busy and research funds too limited for this type of review. The result of the lack of oversight has recently put science itself under suspicion. With the pressures of academic tenure, personal competition and funding, it is not surprising that instances of outright scientific fraud do occur. However, even without fraud, the enormous amount of original scientific research published, and the pressure to produce new information rather than reproduce others' work dramatically increases the chance that errors will go unnoticed. An interesting corollary to this myth is that scientists rarely report valid, but negative results. While this is understandable given the space limitations in scientific journals, the failure to report what did not work is a problem. Only when those working in a particular scientific discipline have access to all of the information regarding a phenomenon -- both positive and negative can the discipline progress.ConclusionsIf, in fact, students and many of their teachers hold these myths to be true, we have strong support for a renewed focus on science itself rather than just its facts and principles in science teaching and science teacher education. This is one of the central messages in both of the new science education projects. Benchmarks for Science Literacy (AAAS, 1993) and the National Science Education Standards (National Research Council, 1994) project both strongly suggest that school science must give students an opportunity to experience science authentically, free of the legends, misconceptions and idealizations inherent in the myths about the nature of the scientific enterprise. There must be increased opportunity for both preservice and inservice teachers to learn about and apply the real rules of the game of science accompanied by careful review of textbooks to remove the "creeping fox terriers" that have helped provide an inaccurate view of the nature of science. Only by clearing away the mist of half-truths and revealing science in its full light, with knowledge of both its strengths and limitations, will learners become enamored of the true pageant of science and be able fairly to judge its processes and products. Note: William McComas' address is School of Education-WPH 1001E, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-0031.TOPIK 2PEMEROLEHAN KEMAHIRAN MANUPULATIF

SINOPSIS Topik ini membolehkan pelajar untuk menguasai kemahiran manipulatif dalam penyiasatan saintifik. Kemahiran psikomotor ini membolehkan pelajar untuk menguasai:1. Jenis dan unit pengukuran2. Mengguna dan mengendali alatan sains3. Melukis gambarajah dan alatan dengan tepat4. Pengendalian specimen dengan cara yang betul dan cermat5. Membersihkan peralatan sains dengan betul6. Menyimpan alatan sains dan bahan kimia dengan betul dan selamat

Hasil pembelajaran

Pada akhir topik ini pelajar dapat:1. Menerangkan kemahiran manipulaif sebagai proses psikomotor yang perlu dikembangkan melalui penyiasatan saintifik2. Menerangkan kemahiran manipulatif dalam penyiasatan saintifik termasuk: a)Jenis dan unit pengukuranb)Pengguanaan dan pengendalian alatan sainsc)Melukis gambarajah dan alatan dengan tepatd)Pengendalian spesimen dengan cara yang betul dan cermate)Membersihkan peralatan sains dengan betulf)Penyimpanan alatan sains dan bahan makmal dengan betul dan selamat

KERANGKA TOPIK

Rajah 2 : Ringkasan Isi pelajaran

2.0KEMAHIRAN MANIPULATIF Sains menekankan inkuiri dan penyelesaian masalah. Dalam proses inkuiri dan penyelesaian masalah kemahiran saintifik dan kemahiran berfikir di gunakan. Kemahiran saintifik adalah penting dalam sebarang penyiasatan saintifik saperti menjalankan eksperimen dan projek. Kemahiran saintifik merangkumi kemahiran proses sains dan kemahiran manipulatif.Apakah dia kemahiran manipulative? Manipulatif bermaksud mengawal atau kebolehan menggunakan sesuatu dengan mahir. Oleh itu kemahiran manupulatif adalah kemahiran psikomotor yang membolehkan kita untuk melaksanakan kerja-kerja amali yang melibatkan perkembangan koordinasi mata-tangan dan kebolehan mengendalikan projek. Sebagai contoh seorang pelajar menggunakan sepasang tweezer. .dan kanta pembesar untuk mengamati organ dalaman tumbuhan berbunga. Kemahiran manipulatif di dalam penyiasatan saintifik adalah kemahiran psikomotor yang membolehkan pelajar menguasai : a)Jenis dan unit pengukuranb)Pengguanaan dan pengendalian alatan sainsc)Melukis gambarajah dan alatan dengan tepatd)Pengendalian specimen dengan cara yang betul dan cermate)Pembersihkan peralatan sains dengan betulf)Penyimpanan alatan sains dan bahan makmak dengan betul dan selamat

Dengan menguasai kemahiran manipulatif para saintis mampu mendapatkan keputusan yang sah. Ia juga akan menghindarkan kemalangan dan

1. Lukis dan namakan peralatan yang pernah anda gunakan untuk pengajaran sains sekolah rendah2. Terangkan bagaimana anda menggunakan peralatan tersebut dengan betul.

Bila menggunakan kemahiran manipulatif pelajar perlu mengambil kira keselamatan diri dan rakan-rakan.Langkah-langkah yang perlu diambil termasuk semasa menggunakkan alatan yang pecah ,tidak mencucuk bahan yang tajam dan panas kepada rakan-rakan , mengelakkan specimen yang tajam,serangga yang berbisa dan memakan bahan yang beracun secara tidak sengaja. Melatih sikap tanggungjawab terhadap keselamatan diri dan orang lain adalah sikap yang baik dan murni.

Dengan menggunakan pengurusan grafik yang sesuai,bina satu peta konsep tentang kepentingan menguasai kemahiran manipulatif bagi pelajar.

2.1 JENIS DAN UNIT PENGUKURAN

2.1.1 PENGUKURAN PANJANG Untuk mengukur panjang, kita boleh menggunakan pembaris atau pita ukur. Ukuran terkecil pada pembaris meter adalah 0.1 cm. Pembaris meter hanya boleh mengukur panjang dengan tepat sehingga 0.1 cm. 1. Huraikan cara yang betul bagaimana untuk membaca skala pada pembaris untuk mengelakkan ralat parallak.2. Huraikan bagaimana diameter sebiji bola ping pong boleh diukur dengan menggunakan pembaris meter dan sepasang set square

Angkup vernier dan micrometer screw gauge adalah alat yang biasa digunakan didalam makmal dan industry. Angkup vernier sesuai untuk mengukur panjang objek, diameter luar (OD) objek berbentuk sfera atau silinder, diameter dalam (ID) paip dan kedalaman lubang.

Kumpul maklumat daripada pelbagai sumber mengenai angkup vernier dan micrometer screw gauge..

2.1.2 MENGUKUR MASA Masa boleh diukur dengan menggunakkan alat seperti jam, atau sebarang alat yang mengalami gerakan secara berkala.

Jam randik analog Jam randik digital

JAM RANDIK

Jam randik digunakan untuk mengukur julat masa yang pendek. Terdapat dua jenis jam randik iaitu jam randik digital dan analog. Jam randik digital lebih tepat dari jam randik analog kerana ia boleh mengukur masa dalam julat 0.01saat manakala jam randik analog hanya boleh mengukur masa dalam julat 0.1 saat.. Oleh kerana jam randik adalah alat yang sensitif dua atau tiga bacaan perlu diambil dan masa purata dirakamkan. Ini disebabkan masa bermula dan berakhir tidak sama diantara individu.

Masa reaksi yang biasa diambil oleh individu adalah diantara 0.2 hingga 0.3 saat. Fikirkan satu eksperimen untuk mengaggarkan masa reaksi untuk seseorang individu.

2.1.3 MENGUKUR ISIPADU

Isipadu adalah jumlah ruang yang di isi biasanya diukur dengan menggunakan bikar, flask konikal, flask volumetrik, silinder bersenggat, picagari, buret dan pipet. Ahli kimia menggunakan unit liter(l) dan milliliter(ml). Senggatan pada bikar dan flask konikal adalah anggaran dan tidak boleh digunakan untuk mendapatkan ketepatan pengukuran. Pipet,buret dan flask volumetrik digunakan bagi tujuan tersebut. Huraikan bagaimana menggunakan pipet dalam penitratan asid-bes dengan betul.

Adakah asid atau bes yang dimasukkan kedalam pipet? Kenapa?

2.1.4 MENGUKUR SUHU

2.1.5 TERMOMETER

Termometer raksa adalah termometer yang selalu di gunakan dalam makmal sains. Merkuri didalam bulb akan mengembang apabila dipanaskan. Pengembangan ini akan menolak keatas benang merkuri dalam tiub kapilari. Bulb ini diperbuat daripada kaca yang nipis supaya haba dapat dikonduksikan dengan cepat kepada merkuri .Batang kaca yang berbentuk silinder bertindak sebagai kanta pembesar supaya suhu boleh dibaca dengan mudah.

1. Bincangkan cara yang betul bagaimana menggunakan termometer merkuri.2. Apakah persamaan dan perbezaan di antara termometer merkuri dan termometer klinikal?

2.1.5 MENGUKUR JISIM

Jisim adalah kandungan jirim sesuatu objek. Kita selalunya menggunakan neraca tiga palang untuk mengukur jisim. Ianya mendapat nama neraca tiga palang kerana ia mempunyai tiga palang yang menunjukkan jisim yang berada pada setiap beam

Ini adalah gambarfoto neraca tiga palang. Anda mungkin telah menggunakan nya di sekolah.terdapat pelbagai jenis penimbang. Saintis memerlukan penimbang untuk mengukur jisim yang kecil.

Neraca tiga palang membandingkan jisim yang diketahui dengan jisim yang tidak diketahui dan ianya tidak dipengaruhi oleh gravity, tidak saperti penimbang spring yang mengukur berat. palang yang pertama mengukur jisim dari 0 hingga 10 grams. palang yang tengah mengukur dalam julat 100 grams dan beam yang akhir dalam julat 10 grams. Dengan menggunakan ketiga-tiga palang anda boleh mengukur jisim objek yang anda kehendaki.

2.1.6 MENGUKUR ARUS ELEKTRIK/VOLTAN

AMMETER

Untuk mengukur jumlah arus elektrik ammeter boleh digunakan. Ammeter disambungkan secara siri dengan litar elektrik. . Bacaan skala maksikum adalah pesongan penuh skala.

Kebanyakan ammeter mempunyai skala berkembar. Ammeter adalah alat yang sensitif. Untuk mengelakan kerosakan ammeter langkah-langkah berjaga-jaga berikut perlu diperhatikan;1. ammeter mempunyai julat yang sesuai untuk mengukur arus.2.jika arus yang diukur adalah besar daripada pesongan maksimun skala ,arus berlebihan akan mengalir melalui ammeter dan merosakkanya.3.adalah penting untuk dimulakan dengan julat yang tertinggi bila menggunakan ammeter. 4.ianya adalah penting untuk menyambungkan ammeter dengan cara yang betul untuk mengelakkan kerosakan bila jarum penunjuk bergerak dalam arah yang salah. Terminal positif ammeter perlu disambungkan kepada terminal positif bateri atau punca kuasa. Begitu juga dengan terminal negatif ammeter. 5.sebelum menggunakan ammeter pastikan jarum ammeter berada pada kedudukan sifar. Ini boleh dilakukan dengan melaraskan pelaras sifar dibawah jarum tersebut.

VOLTMETER

Beza keupayaan merentasi 2 titik dalam sesuatu litar boleh diukur dengan menggunakan voltmeter. Voltmeter perlu disambungkan secara selari merentasi komponen yang di ukur. Langkah-langkah berjaga-jaga sama saperti penggunaan ammeter. multimeter adalah meter elektrik pelbagai fungsi.

Bincangkan apa yang boleh diukur dan bagaimana menggunakannya

2.2. PENGGUNAAN DAN PENGENDALIAN ALATAN SAINS

2.2.1 MikroskopMikroskop cahaya kebanyakan modul yang digunakan di sekolah menggunakan kanta dan cahaya untuk membesarkan objek. Kanta yang digunakan membiaskan cahaya untuk membuatkan objek nampak lebih dekat. Stereoskop mikroskop ini membenarkan penglihatan binocular untuk melihat objek yang lebih besar. Bincangkan prosedur umum bagaimana menggunakan dan mengendalikan mikroskop.

1.2.2 PENGGUNAAN DAN PENGENDALIAN BAHAN KIMIA

Jangan memanaskan pelarut yang mudah terbakar dengan api Pelarut yang tidak di gunakan perlu disimpan semula didalam stor pelarut atau di lupuskan tanpa penangguhan. Elakkan tumpahan dan basuh tangan segera dengan sabun dan air jika berlaku sentuhan.. Campurkan bahan kimia kedalam air dan tidak sebaliknya Gunakan spatula yang berlainan untuk bahan kimia yang berbeza Hadkan penggunaan jumlah bahan kimia yang digunakan dalam makmal.

PENGGUNAAN DAN PENGENDALIAN ALATAN ELEKTRIK

Pastikan semua kable elektrik dalam keaadaan yang baik. Pastikan litar tidak melampaui beban. Penyambungan yang dibuat perlu betul. Jangan sentuh peralatan elektrik yang disambungkan pada punca dengan tangan yang basah. Jangan gunakan bahan-bahan logam atau barangan kemas bila bekerja dengan alatan elektrik. Ambil langkah-langkah pencegahan untuk mengelakkan tumpahan keatas alatan elektrik.

MELUKIS RAJAH DAN ALATAN DENGAN TEPAT

Disini terdapat beberapa tip untuk melukis specimen. 1. gunakan kertas kosong yang mempunyai banyak ruang . 2. gunakan pensil yang tajam.. 3. lukis apa yang anda Nampak sahaja. 4. lakar rajah yang besar dan mudah. 5. lukis dengan menggunakan skala yang betul dan sesuai. 6. jangan melorek atau mewarnakan rajah. . Use stippling to indicate a darker area 7. gunakan pembaris untuk melukis garisan.jangan merintangi garis yang berlabel.8. labelkan bahagian-bahagian objek. 9. berikan tajuk untuk lukisan anda. Lukis dan namakan alatan yang biasa digunakan dalam pengajaran sains sekolah rendah.

Akses internet untuk mengumpul maklumat tentang makmal maya. Bagaimanakah ianya berbeza dengan bilik makmal sains biasa?

TOPIK 3PEMEROLEHAN KEMAHIRAN MANUPULATIF

3.1. PENGENDALIAN SPESIMEN DENGAN BETUL DAN BERHATI-HATI

Benda hidup yang dibawa ke bilik darjah perlu di jaga untuk tempoh masa yang pendek atau panjang. Oleh yang demikian ianya memerlukan kediaman yang khusus dan penjagaan yang berkala. Jika boleh bina suatu kawasan lapangan di luar bilik darjah .anda perlu mengambil langkah-langkah keselamatan apabila mengendalikan specimen.

Kebersihan dan keselamatan apabila mengendalikan specimen perlu diberikan perhatian yang lebih.pastikan pelajar membasuh tangan mereka denga sabun dan air selepas mengendalikan specimen hidup. Penjagaan yang lebih perlu diberikan apabila specimen itu mempunyaui cirri-ciri yang boleh membahayakan pelajar( e.g kaktus yang mempunyai duri yang tajam,serangga yang mungkin menyengat atau menggigit atauyang boleh menyebabkan irritasi) . ingatkan pelajar supaya tidak merasa atau memasukkan apa jua kedalam mulut mereka.

Aktiviti1 : Biji Kacang Hijau1. Sediakan tiga lembaran lapisan kapas diatas kepingan tail yang berbeza. 2. Letakkan lima biji kacang hijau ke atas setiap satu lapisan kapas. 3. Tinggalkan kering lapisan kapas yang pertama.basahkan lapisan kapas yang kedua dengan lima sudu air dan lapisan ketiga dengan 20 sudu air.4. Siram lapisan kedua dan ketiga dengan isipadu air yang sama selama lima hari. 5. Perhatikan tumbesaran anak benih dan rekodkan ketinggian dan bilangan daun setiap hari.

Aktiviti 2 : Ikan dan Cicak

1. Sediakan satu akuarium dengan ikan dan cicak. Perhatikan haiwan tersebut. 2. Kenalpasti dan bandingkan cirri-ciri kedua haiwan tersebut. a) Apakan ciri yang biasa haiwan tersebut? b) Apakah ciri yang berbeza?

3.2. PENGENDALIAN BAHAN-BAHAN BIOLOGI

Semua aktiviti yang melibatkan tangan ke mulut perlu dielakkan Serangga dan haiwan kecil harus diletakkan di dalam sangkar atau akuarium. Kecederaan yang disebabkan oleh haiwan yang dikaji hendaklah di rawat dengan menggunakan antiseptic dan rawatan selanjut perlu diberikan. Luka perlu sembuh sepenuhnya sebelum mula bekerja. Pertimbangkan penggunaan filem,videos dan computer untuk aktiviti dissection.. Alatan kaca dan slaid mikroskop perlu di basmi kuman dan digunakan semula. Sebarang tumpahan atau kemalangan perlu direkodkan walaupun tiada kecederaan.

Tumbuhan Lakukan pemerhatian di lapangan Pulangkan semula specimen di lapangan Jangan buang specimen kedalam tong sampah Jangan kendalikan tumbuhan yang beracun

Binatang Perhatikanserangga yang hidup didalam piring petri yang tertutup. Lepaskan serangga selepas aktiviti. Untuk pastikan keselamatan sebelum memulakan kerja balut semua luka. Tangan perlu dibasuh dengan sabun. Jika digigit rawat luka dengan antiseptic.

3.3. MEMBERSIH ALATAN SAINS DENGAN BETUL

Bersihkan alatan kaca dengan menggunakan bahan cuci,bilas dengan air dan keringkan. Untuk pengeringan biarkan alatan kaca berdiri,digantung atau dibiarkan kering diatas rak atau papan pengering. Selepas menggunakan sebarang alat pastikan ianya bersih sebelum disimpan.

3.4. MENYIMPAN ALATAN SAINS DAN BAHAN DENGAN BETUL DAN SELAMAT

Alatan yang besar dan bekas bahan kimia yang besar seharusnya disimpan pada rak yang bawah. Bahan perlu disimpan pada suhu yang sesuai. Jangan letakkan bahan yang bahaya dalam bekas yang tidak stabil. Racun perlu dikunci dalam cabinet. Simpan semua bahan kimia yang aktif dalam bekas yang gelap Asid dan bahan yang mengkakis perlu disimpan dalam cabinet bukan logam dan berlubang.

Tuliskan nota ringkas tentang cara pengendalian,pembersihan dan ra simpanan alatan sains..

www.biologycorner.com www.ehow.comwww.wikihow.comwww.sciencekit.com

TOPIK4KEMAHIRAN PROSES SAINS ASASMEMERHATI

SINOPSIS

Dalam topik ini anda akan didedahkan kepada tujuh kemahiran proses sains asas. Anda juga akan diberi dengan aktiviti-aktiviti yang boleh anda mencuba sendiri dengan murid-murid untuk meningkatkan semua kemahiran ini. Latihan dan soalan-soalan tutorial yang diberikan bukan sahaja akan membantu anda menilai diri anda sendiri dalam kemahiran proses sains asas ini tetapi juga boleh meningkatkan pemahaman anda.

HASIL PEMBELAJARANDi akhir topik ini diharapkan guru-guru boleh :

1. Membentuk penghayatan secara kritis kemahiran proses sains asas dan amalannya di dalam pengajaran sains di sekolah rendah.

2. Menunjukkan kefasihan dalam mereka bentuk pendekatan bagi menyokong murid-murid dalam mengembangkan kemahiran prosedur dan pemahamansains

KERANGKA TOPIK

Rajah 3 : Kerangka Isi Kandungan

MEMERHATIApa itu memerhati?Tahukah anda apa itu memerhati? Kebanyakan daripada kita memahami bahawa memerhati itu melibatkan deria mata untuk melihat dan memahami benda-benda di sekitar. Sebenarnya ia adalah lebih daripada itu.Memerhati adalah asas kemahiran proses sains yang melibatkan semua lima deria untuk mencirikan objek-objek, mengenalpasti perubahan-perubahan, persamaan dan perbezaan untuk memahami dunia di sekitar kita. Di sebalik itu juga kita boleh mengatakan bahawa memerhati juga melibatkan proses mengumpul maklumat berkaitan dengan objek-objek atau peristiwa-peristiwa dengan menggunakan kelima-lima pancaindera, lihat, dengar, sentuh, rasa dan bau.Memerhati dalam sains, memerlukan murid-murid memberi perhatian secara menghalusi.Memandang, melihat dan memerhati hendaklah difahami dengan jelas.Memandang dan melihat dianggap sebagai pendekatan pasif manakala memerhati pula dilihat sebagai pendekatan aktif.

Apabila kita hendak mengenali sesuatu buah, kita akan mengguna mata untuk melihat bentuk dan warna buah itu.Anda juga akan menyentuh dan menghidu buah tersebut untuk mengetahui samada buah itu masak atau tidak. Kadangkala anda mencuba rasa mengguna lidah untuk memastikan samada buah itu manis atau tidak. Ada kalanya kita menggoncang dan mendengar bunyi untuk menguji isi terkandung.Disini kita mengguna kesemua pancaindera untuk mengenali dan memahami buah tersebut.Pemerhatian jenis ini disebut sebagai pemerhatian kualitatif.Jika kita hendak mengetahui dengan lebih lanjut, tentang berat dan panjang buah tersebut misalnya 200 g dan 30 cm, pemerhatian itu disebut pemerhatian kuantitatif sebab ia melibatkan nombor atau kuantiti. .

Pemerhatian kuantitatif memberi maklumat dengan lebih tepat berbanding dengan pancaindera kita.Maka pelajar, lebih-lebih lagi kanak-kanak, memerlukan bantuan untuk membuat pemerhatian yang baik. Jika seseorang pelajar itu sedang menerangkan apa yang dia lihat, dia akan menerangkan tentang warna objek itu sahaja tetapi tidak berkenaan dengan saiz atau bentuk objek itu. Pemerhatian yang bagus dan produktif adalah berbentuk penjelasan yang ditulis atau dilukis secara menyeluruh dan tepat dan pelajar perlu dilatih untuk menghasilkan penerangan yang menyeluruh.Penerangan yang panjang dan lengkap oleh pelajar, maka barulah boleh meningkatkan pemahaman tentang konsep yang sedang dikaji.

Bagaimanakah kita membimbing pelajar-pelajar kita memberi penerangan yang baik dan menyeluruh.? Beri arahan kepada pelajar supaya focus kepada objek atau peristiwa yang sedang dikaji dan kenalpasti ciri-cirinya. Berikan mereka peluang untuk menyatakan pemerhatian kualitatif awal. Kemudian minta mereka memberi huraian secara menyoal atau memberi mereka alatan yang boleh membantu mereka menjalankan pemerhatian kualitatif atau kuantitatif yang selanjutnya. Jika berlaku sebarang perubahan dalam pemerhatian, pelajar perlu menyatakan apa yang mereka lihat sebelum, semasa dan selepas kejadian berlaku dalam pemerhatian. Jika boleh pelajar perlu digalakkan menamakan apa yang mereka perhati. Gunakan rujukan, merujuk kepada benda yang telah menjadi biasa kepada semua orang untuk menerangkan dengan lebih jelas sesuatu pemerhatian. Contohnya, kita menerangkan warna dengan rujukan, seperti langit biru, rumput hijau kuning emas untuk menerangkan warna biri, hijau atau kuning. Apabila kita membuat ukuran, kita membandingkan sifat dengan rujukan unit. Sesuatu kenyataan ukuran mengandungi dua bahagian, nombor memberitahu berapa bilangan, dan nama unit untuk memberitahu berapa banyak kandungan isinya. Penggunaan nombor menunjukkan ukuran itu pemerhatian kuantitatif. Contoh, helaian daun diikat dalam bilangan lima, atau ukuran berat daun ialah lima gram.

Sebagai rumusannya boleh kita katakana bahawa pemerhatian itu dibuat apabila; Mengguna semua pancaindera untuk mendapatkan maklumat. Menggunakan perkakas atau alat untuk membuat pemerhatian tepat Mengenalpasti persamaan dan perbezaan untuk membuat perbandingan Mengenalpasti ciri-ciri khas pada objek dan persekitaran Sedar akan perubahan pada persekitaran Mengenalpasti susunan objek atau peristiwa

Keupayaan untuk membuat pemerhatian yang baik adalah juga penting untuk perkembangan kemahiran proses sains yang lain, berkomunikasi, mengkelas, mengukur, membuat inferen dan meramal.Cuba buat aktiviti berikut untuk membentuk kemahiran memerhatiAktiviti 1Bahan :1. Kacang Prosedur:1. Buat pemerhatian kepada kacang.2. Tulis pemerhatian dalam jadual di bawah.

Keputusan :Pemerhatian

Mengguna indera lihatMengguna indera rasaMengguna indera bauMengguna indera sentuhMengguna indera dengar

Yang manakah pemerhatian kuantitatif? Jika tiada, fikir semula dan cuba carikan sesuatu_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Aktiviti2:Bahan 1. Biskut Cream Crackers2. Air sulingProsedur:1. Perhatikan sekeping biskut cream crackers.2. Rendam biskut ke dalam air suling.3. Tulis pemerhatian anda di dalam jadual di bawah.

Keputusan Pemerhatian

Mengguna indera lihatMengguna indera rasaMengguna indera bauMengguna indera sentuhMengguna indera dengar

Sebelum direndam

Semasa direndam

Selepas direndam

Yang manakah pemerhatian kuantitatif? Jika tiada, fikir semula dan cuba carikan sesuatu________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

1. Kenapa kita perlu membuat pemerhatian?2. Apakah kepentingan kita membuat pemerhatian?3. Rancang tiga aktiviti kemahiran proses sains, pemerhatian dibuat berdasarkan spesifikasi sains sekolah rendah.

Tutorial 11. Secara berkumpulan, laksanakan the candle activity. Bincang dan bentangkan dapatan anda

Tutorial 22. Baca artikel Elephant Observations dan jawab soalan yang diberi.

Baca artikel Working Scientifically dan sediakan peta konsep.

Tahniah !Anda telah bekerja dan berusaha bersungguh-sungguh.Berehatlah sebentar. Kemudian sambung dan teruskan ke kemahiran proses asas yang lain.

Tutorial 1

CANDLE ACTIVITY

Bahan :

Lilin Lighter

Buat ukuran kualitatif dan kuantitatif kepada sebatang lilin sebelum dan selepas dibakar selama dua minit.Tanam lilin tersebut pada seketul modeling clay.

Pemerhatian Kualitatif

Sebelum pembakaran ________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Semasa pembakaran ________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

Selepas pembakaran ________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________Pemerhatian Kuantitatif

Pemerhatian

Sebelum pembakaran Selepas pembakaran

Bagaimanakah kedua-dua pemerhatian di atas berbeza?

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Yang manakah lebih sesuai digunakan dengan pemerhatian saintifik? Kenapa?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Tutorial 2ELEPHANT OBSERVATIONSLong time ago in a distant land, six blind men lived together. All of them had heard of elephants, but they had never seen one. When they heard that an elephant and his trainer would be visiting their village, they all wanted an encounter with this beast. They made their way to the site where the elephant was being kept. Each blind man touched the elephant and made his observations. The observations are listed below.

One man touched the elephants side and said.

An elephant is like a wall.

Another man touched the trunk and said,

An elephant is like a snake.

Another man touched a tusk and said,

An elephant is like a spear.

Another man touched a leg and said,

An elephant is like a fan.

The last man touched the tail and said,

An elephant is like a rope.

Did the blind men make appropriate inferences? Explain.

_______________________________________________________________

How might the blind men improve their inferences?

_______________________________________________________________

One of the characteristics of science is that scientists communicate their ideas, observation, results, and inferences with each other. Why is this a good idea?

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

In the space below, write a sentence or two explaining what you have learned.

Qualitative Observations_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Quantitative Observations

_______________________________________________________________

Did the activities above help you to make better observations? Explain.

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________How does telling stories can make teaching more fun to primary students?

_______________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________

Working scientifically

Introduction

Working scientifically involves the processes of science, includingunderstanding the sorts of questions that are the province of science; the designof experiments; reasoning and arguing with scientific evidence; and analysing and interpreting data.

Detailed discussion of working scientifically in primary schools can be found in Keith Skamps Teaching primary science constructively (Thomson Learning2004). An example of the forms of knowledge associated with workingscientifically can be found in the Victorian Curriculum and StandardsFramework (CSF) for science, which can be found on the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority website .

Key concepts of working scientifically

The activities in this topic are designed to explore the following key concepts:Working scientifically involves particular forms of reasoning withevidence that is different in detail from reasoning in other areas.There is no one scientific method, but many ways in which scientists planto establish ideas and generate evidence to explore and support these ideas.An oft-cited example of scientific method is the controlled experiment,where the relationship between an effect and a variable is explored, withother potentially confounding variables controlled (i.e. kept the same). Anexample would be the exploration of the effect of the length of a pendulum on its period of swing, keeping the weight and swing size the same butvarying the length and timing of the swing. However, for many branches ofscience, this type of control is not possible. For instance, in studyingecological systems, in many cases theories must be established by lookingat existing ecosystems with many variables. In geology and astronomy theidea of controlling and repeating observations is very different. What iscommon to all these areas, however, is the collection of evidence to supportor argue against claims, and reasoning with evidence that attempts to isolateclear causes for phenomena.Working scientifically involves a number of concepts of evidence,including the purpose and techniques of focused observation, therecognition of a scientific question that can be investigated, the need forrepeat measurements and skills in devising measurement processes, ways ofrecording data (these can vary considerably) and representing data foranalysis, different experimental designs and associated principles (e.g. understanding sample size in making observations in the field), andreporting.

Students alternative conceptions of working scientifically

Research into students ideas about this topic has identified the following non-scientific conceptions: Students will not immediately see the task of an investigation as exploringideas or looking for patterns, but will treat an investigation simply asestablishing what is without thought for considering alternativeinterpretations.Students have problems recognising what is an investigable question andwill propose questions such as What is electricity? as the basis forinvestigation. Their questions need to be worked with and clarified tobecome amenable to scientific investigation.Students will not understand many of the concepts relating tomeasurementfor instance, the reading of a scale, the recording ofcomparison measurements using consistent processes, the calibration ofinstruments, the need for repeat measurements and the concept ofuncertainty in measurement. They need to be supported in makingdefensible measurements.Students can understand the need to control variables in simple situations(to make the test fair), such as the need to use the same amount of eachtype of sugar when comparing the solubility of sugars. However, they havedifficulty in cases of interacting variables (e.g. finding out the separateeffects of weight and length on a pendulum swing, or the separate effect oflight and moisture in determining where slaters prefer to live).Students will not understand the power of laying out data in tables andgraphs, and the use of a table as a design organiser to help plan a series ofmeasurements.Depending on their knowledge and experience, students may have troublearguing clearly from evidence.

It has been amply demonstrated that, with appropriate support, even very youngchildren are capable of distinguishing between observations and inferences, ofasking investigable questions, planning experiments and arguing from evidence.

Consumer science

Consumer science refers to activities in the classroom whereby students usescientific processes to make judgments about consumer products. Althoughconsumer science does not fall easily into any major curriculum topiccategories, it is an important and fun vehicle for teaching students about some of the science processes such as fair testing, measuring and recording. Itprovides a vehicle for learning about the nature of scientific investigation.It should be noted, however, that these investigations, because they mostly involve comparisons on the basis of criteria, do not illustrate the more difficultnature of working scientifically that deals with the exploration of conceptualideas.

Skills and understandings of consumer scienceThe activities in this topic are designed to develop the following skills andunderstandings of this topic:how to formulate useful, investigable questionsthe importance of measuring accurately why it is necessary to ensure that all tests are fair and repeatablethe purpose of planning and designing investigations how to design valid experiments with appropriate variable control how to design measurement procedureshow to represent data for analysis and reporting.

Things to consider when completing activitiesThe activities in this topic give examples of some types of products suitable forearly and middle years consumer science testing. In judging different products,the things that need to be considered (summarising the discussion above) are:what criteria are relevant for the evaluationwhat weighting should be given to the various criteriawhether the test is fairwhether the results are reproduciblewhether the method of comparison (scale, addition of scores, etc.) isappropriate.

Development of students testing capabilities

The following descriptions of students capabilities at different year levels, andthe type of activity appropriate for each, are based on reports of DeakinUniversity students teaching consumer science activities to groups of studentsin schools.

Prep/Year 1It is most appropriate to structure tests and scaffold childrens experimenting.Criteria and procedures need to be decided by the teacher, using simple testsand comparisons, rather than measurements. Ensure there is a low demand formanipulation skills.Examples of appropriate tests include comparing the sweetness of cereals, theamount of salt or oil in chips or the amount of bubble in detergents.

Year 2Students can define criteria, but have little understanding of a fair test, e.g. sothey may cheat to make sure their chosen sample wins.

Year 3Students are beginning to appreciate the notion of a fair test. They can definecriteria and conduct given tests with fairness and appreciate how differences inresults can arise.

Year 4Depending on the content area, students should now be able to designexperiments and plan measurements with minimal input from the teacher.

Years 5 and aboveThe comparison of products by discussion of weighting of criteria isincreasingly possible. Students are able to set out tables and deal with differentorders on different criteria. They can hold a reasoned discussion on the factorsaffecting the performance of different products, and ways of exploring thesefurther.

ActivitiesExploring consumer scienceKey ideas: Articulating and refining questions. Designing experiments andcontrolling variables. Developing measurement procedures. Constructing andinterpreting data representations.1

1

A C T I V I T Y: P O TAT O C H I P S

Teaching note: This activity can be used for all levels but will need to beadapted accordingly. Have the students work in groups. Each group should have a scoresheet and a recorder, a reporter, a timekeeper and someone to hand outeach item. Make sure all the students take it in turns to taste the items. Youmight want to collect the information and collate it on the board. Somediscussion of the problems with testing, especially the problems associated inkeeping things fair, should be encouraged.

You will need:a variety of brands of potato chipsbrown paper squaresbrown paper bagsrollingpinsbreadboardsjars of water.

a) Test for salt content Taste directlyhave ONE student taste each brand of chip to determine and give their opinion of which is the saltiest. It might be a good idea to blindfold thestudent so they do not see the brand they are tasting and select their favourite (or least favourite, accordingly)

Dissolve in water and taste (what will you control?)crush a chip of each brand(making sure you keep the samples the same size) and put the crumbs of each chipinto separate containers with about 40 mL of water. Add a pinch of salt to another40 mL of water. Have a clean glass of water on hand. Alternatively taste the saltedwater and each chip water, taking a sip of fresh water in between tastes. Which issaltier?

b) Test for oil content by rubbing between sheets of brown paperPlace a chip between two sheets of brown paper on the breadboard, and thencrush it by rolling over it with the rolling pin. How much oil appears on the brownpaper? Measure the spot using a ruler.

Alternatively, place a chip on top of a pile of brown paper pieces. Roll over it usingthe rolling pin. How many thicknesses of paper did the oil penetrate? Hold the oilpatch over some print or up to the light. How translucent is the patch?

Repeat the experiment for the other brands of chips.

c) Taste test Place a sample of each brand of chip into a paper bag. Have one student act as thetaste-tester (only one student at a time should test the chips!). Get the student to taste each brand of chip from the unmarked bags. It might be a good idea to getthem to have a sip of clean water between each taste. What could they test for (e.g. crunch, flavour, texture)?

d) Testing the packagingExamine the packaging that the chips come in. How is the manufacturer trying tosell the chips? What colours are used in the packaging? What is the salt or fatcontent according to the nutrition label? Is there a trinket included in the pack? Is this important to the group? How easy are the bags to open? Rate what the students think of each and keep score. Which brand of chips is considere