Modul kls xi unit 7 hortatory environmental

MODUL Bahasa Inggris Kelas XI Unit 7 Hortatory Exposition Environment

PEMBELAJARAN PEMBELAJARAN PEMBELAJARAN PEMBELAJARAN

SMA NEGERI 2 MATARAMSMA NEGERI 2 MATARAMSMA NEGERI 2 MATARAMSMA NEGERI 2 MATARAM

MATA PELAJARAN BAHASA INGGRIS MATA PELAJARAN BAHASA INGGRIS MATA PELAJARAN BAHASA INGGRIS MATA PELAJARAN BAHASA INGGRIS

KELAS XI SEMESTER KELAS XI SEMESTER KELAS XI SEMESTER KELAS XI SEMESTER

UNIT UNIT UNIT UNIT 7777 HORTATORY EXPOSITION HORTATORY EXPOSITION HORTATORY EXPOSITION HORTATORY EXPOSITION

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

H.M. SARTONO, S.Pd.H.M. SARTONO, S.Pd.H.M. SARTONO, S.Pd.H.M. SARTONO, S.Pd.

NIP: 196012311986011055NIP: 196012311986011055NIP: 196012311986011055NIP: 196012311986011055

Unit 7 Hortatory Exposition Environment SMAN 2 Mataram

MODUL MODUL MODUL MODUL

PEMBELAJARAN PEMBELAJARAN PEMBELAJARAN PEMBELAJARAN

SMA NEGERI 2 MATARAMSMA NEGERI 2 MATARAMSMA NEGERI 2 MATARAMSMA NEGERI 2 MATARAM


KELAS XI SEMESTER KELAS XI SEMESTER KELAS XI SEMESTER KELAS XI SEMESTER 2222

HORTATORY EXPOSITION HORTATORY EXPOSITION HORTATORY EXPOSITION HORTATORY EXPOSITION

MATERI POKOKMATERI POKOKMATERI POKOKMATERI POKOK


DISUSUN OLEH DISUSUN OLEH DISUSUN OLEH DISUSUN OLEH

H.M. SARTONO, S.Pd.H.M. SARTONO, S.Pd.H.M. SARTONO, S.Pd.H.M. SARTONO, S.Pd.

Pembina IV/a Pembina IV/a Pembina IV/a Pembina IV/a

NIP: 196012311986011055NIP: 196012311986011055NIP: 196012311986011055NIP: 196012311986011055

2020202010101010

Mataram . Doc 1


MODUL Bahasa Inggris Kelas XI Unit 7 Hortatory Exposition Environment SMAN 2 Mataram . Doc 2

PREFACE

First of all we wished to preface that in this part of Learning English Material Based

ICT, SMAN 2 Mataram designed firstly English Learning Material for Senior High School

grade X, XI, & XII Academic Year 2009 / 2010. They are written and designed by H.M.

Sartono.

Nowadays, Mastering English is a challenge for some people, this is because of the

Modern Technology which accelerates the development of any field including Education.

To fulfill the Standard of Competence these English Learning Materials, we have to concern

with Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan as it is legitimated by Peraturan Menteri No 22

Tahun 2006 and it is applied in KTSP SMA which is elaborated completely in Syllabus

Design.

The main teacher's roles are as mediator and facilitator. The students and the

teachers are to be active and creative . The students' activity is focused on four skills such

as Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing Skills. All skills enable the students to work

actively, while vocabulary Mastery is given indirectly in every task and also functional skills

which is available in orally that is intended to make students to be able to communicate in

English orally. Then the acceleration task are implemented in every topic and section.

Furthermore, in these part of design English Learning Materials in order to meet the

students' needs, to offer a wide knowledge which are useful to their daily life or activity. So

we can say that the students from SMAN 2 Mataram joining these materials are aware of

English. And during the process of study, the students will discover something new, also

encourage them to communicate in English.

Finally, we would like to express our appreciation to those who have taken apart,

helped and given the motivation, or supported to these designs.

Hopefully, if there were some suggestions, criticisms for the improvement of these

designs will be warmly appreciated.

Designed by

H.M. SARTONO, S.Pd


" ENGLISH SMANDA MATARAM "

Hello! participants, welcome to the unit

with the main topic

The course consist of two activities that you will finish (online) in

two weeks for every unit lesson, so that you will work on the

materials one oral cycle for one week. another one written cycle

The first two weeks, you will learn and

The second two weeks, you will learn and do activity about

So, if you have any questions please do not hesitate to sent me

and email or post in the pin



Hello! participants, welcome to the unit 7 Hortatory Exposition

with the main topic "ENVIRONMENENTAL ISSUESThe course consist of two activities that you will finish (online) in


materials one oral cycle for one week. another one written cycle also for one week

The first two weeks, you will learn and do activity about "ORAL

CYCLE'.


"WRITTEN CYCLE" So, if you have any questions please do not hesitate to sent me

and email or post in the pin-board to discuss with other

participants.

Enjoy your learning!

Mataram . Doc 3


Hortatory Exposition

ENVIRONMENENTAL ISSUES" The course consist of two activities that you will finish (online) in


materials one oral cycle for one week. another one written cycle

do activity about "ORAL


So, if you have any questions please do not hesitate to sent me

board to discuss with other


Communicating in oral and written texts, using proper language

and accurately in the interactional discourse and/ or monologue,

especially in the passages

Expressing the nuance of meaning, using the correct rhetorical steps

in the written texts of Hortatory Exposition , and using simple written

Students are able to

and accurately in the interactional discourse and/ or monologue especially to

Students are able to communicate using proper language fluently

and accurately in the interactional discourse and


and accurately in the interactional discourse and/ or monologue

Students are able to expres

rhetorical steps in the written texts of Hortatory Exposition, and using simple


STANDARD OF COMPETENCY : Communicating in oral and written texts, using proper language

fluently


especially in the passages of Hortatory Exposition

BASIC COMPETENCY : Expressing the nuance of meaning, using the correct rhetorical steps


languages.

Achievement Indicator : Students are able to communicate using proper language fluently


expressions of anger



especially

to expressions of annoyance



especially to expressions of embarrassment

Students are able to express the nuance of meaning, using the correct


written languages

Mataram . Doc 4

Communicating in oral and written texts, using proper language


of Hortatory Exposition

Expressing the nuance of meaning, using the correct rhetorical steps


communicate using proper language fluently



/ or monologue



s the nuance of meaning, using the correct



Responding to expressions of embarrassment

Performing a monologue of hortatory exposition text

Identifying the structure of a hortatory exposition text

Respond to hortatory exposition monolog carefullyRespond to expressions of anger

Respond to expressions of annoyance

Respond to expressions of embarrassment

Use expressions of embarrassment

Developing a dialog into a longer one

Respond to hortatory exposition text

Identify various textual meanings

Write hortatory expositiontext using correct structure


II. MAPPING CONCEPT UNIT 7 HORTATORY EXPOSITION

MAIN TOPIC : ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Listening:

Responding to expressions of anger Responding to expressions of annoyance

Responding to expressions of embarrassment Responding to a hortatory exposition

Speaking: Expressing anger

Expressing embarrassment Expressing annoyance

Performing a monologue of hortatory exposition text Reading:

Reading hortatory exposition texts Identifying the structure of a hortatory exposition text

Writing: Writing a hortatory exposition

Learning Objectives

A. Oral Cycle Respond to hortatory exposition monolog carefully

Respond to expressions of anger

Respond to expressions of annoyance

Respond to expressions of embarrassment Identify sentence patterns main ideas

Use expressions of anger

Use expressions of annoyance

Use expressions of embarrassment

Developing a dialog into a longer one

B. Written Cycle Respond to hortatory exposition text

Identify various textual meanings


Mataram . Doc 5

Respond to hortatory exposition monolog carefully




Smoke Billowing from Industrial Smokestacks

Carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and other

types of contaminants pouring from industrial

smokestacks contribute to worldwide

atmospheric pollution. Carbon dioxide

contributes significantly to global warming,

while sulphur dioxide is the principal cause of

acid rain in eastern and northern Europe and

north-eastern North America. Other

environmental problems stemming from smokestack emissions include respiratory

diseases, poisoned lakes and streams, and damaged forests and crops.

Adapted from Microsoft Encarta 2007.

Hydrocarbon Pollution from Vehicle Exhaust

Earth's Biosphere

The earths biosphere contains numerous

complex ecosystems that collectively contain

all of the living organisms of the planet. Unique

perspectives of the earth help suggest the

immensity and complexity of the planets

biosphere. En route to the moon in December

1972, the Apollo 17 spacecraft took this image of the earth, showing Arabia and the

continent of Africa. NASA/Science Source/Photo


Global Temperature Changes

The changes in average global surface temperature since the beginning of weather

recordings in the mid-19th century are shown in this chart. It shows that since scientific recordings

began, temperatures rose sharply to a high in the last two decades of the 20th century; they also rose

sharply from about 1910 to the 1940s, although at a much lower average level than in the 1980s and

1990s.

The atmosphere that shelters the Earth from excessive amounts of ultraviolet radiation and

enables life to exist is a gaseous mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapor,

other elements and compounds, and dust particles. Heated by the Sun and by radiant energy from the

Earth, the atmosphere circulates about the planet and modifies temperature differences. Of the Earths

water, 97 per cent makes up the oceans, 2 per cent is ice, and 1 per cent is the fresh water in rivers,

lakes, groundwater, and atmospheric and soil moisture. The soil is the thin mantle of material that

supports terrestrial life. It is the product of climate, parent material such as glacial till and sedimentary

rocks, and vegetation. Dependent on all these are the Earths living organisms, including human

beings. Plants use water, carbon dioxide, and sunlight to convert raw materials into carbohydrates

through photosynthesis; animal life, in turn, is dependent on plants, in a sequence of interconnected

relationships known as the food web.

Hydrocarbon Pollution from Vehicle

Exhaust

Vehicle exhaust contains a number of

airborne pollutants that adversely affect

the health of animals and plants and the

chemical nature of the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide and hydrocarbon

emissions, two of the major components

of vehicle exhaust, contribute significantly

to global warming and are produced as a

by-product of the combustion of

petroleum-based fuels. Elevated carbon

dioxide and hydrocarbon levels cause

sunlight to be reflected and trapped within

the atmosphere, which slowly raises the

temperature of the atmosphere.

One impact that the burning of fossil fuels

has had on the Earths environment has been the increase of carbon dioxide (CO2) in

the Earths atmosphere. The amount of atmospheric CO2 apparently remained stable

for millennia, at about 260 ppm (parts per million), but over the past 100 years it has

increased to 350 ppm. The significance of this change is its potential for raising the

temperature of the Earth through the process known as the greenhouse effect.

Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere prevents the escape of outgoing long-wave


radiation from the Earth to outer space; as more heat is produced and less escapes,

the temperature of the Earth increases. Adapted from Microsoft Encarta 2007

.

Warming the Earth

The greenhouse effect refers to

the way in which gases in the

Earths atmosphere warm the

Earth like the glass roof of a

greenhouseby letting sunlight

in but keeping the reflected heat

energy trapped inside. These

naturally occurring gases,

notably carbon dioxide and water

vapour, are called greenhouse

gases.

.

A significant global warming of the atmosphere would have profound environmental

effects. It would speed the melting of polar ice caps, raise sea levels, change the

climate regionally and globally, alter natural vegetation, and affect crop production.

These changes would, in turn, have an enormous impact on human civilization. Since

1850 there has been a mean rise in global temperature of about 1 C (1.8 F). Most

scientists have predicted that rising levels of CO2 and other greenhouse gases will

cause temperatures to continue to increase, with estimates ranging from 2 to 6 C

(4 to 11 F) by the mid-21st century. However, some scientists who research climate

effects and trends dispute the theories of global warming, and attribute the most

recent rise to normal temperature fluctuations

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

The species Homo sapiensthat is, human beingsappeared late in the Earths history, but

was ultimately able to modify the Earths environment by its activities. Although human

beings apparently first appeared in Africa, they quickly spread throughout the world.

Because of their unique mental and physical capabilities, human beings were able to escape

the environmental constraints that limited other species and to change the environment to

meet their needs.

Although early human beings undoubtedly lived in some harmony with the environment, as

did other animals, their retreat from the wilderness began with the first, prehistoric

agricultural revolution. The ability to control and use fire allowed them to modify or eliminate

natural vegetation, and the domestication and herding of grazing animals eventually resulted

in overgrazing and soil erosion. The domestication of plants also led to the destruction of

natural vegetation to make room for crops, and the demand for wood for fuel denuded


mountains and depleted forests. Wild animals were slaughtered for food and destroyed as

pests and predators.

While human populations remained small and human technology modest, their impact on the

environment was localized. As populations increased and technology improved and

expanded, however, more significant and widespread problems arose. Rapid technological

advances after the Middle Ages culminated in the Industrial Revolution, which involved the

discovery, use, and exploitation of fossil fuels, as well as the extensive exploitation of the

Earths mineral resources. With the Industrial Revolution, humans began in earnest to

change the face of the Earth, the nature of its atmosphere, and the quality of its water.

Today, unprecedented demands on the environment from a rapidly expanding human

population and from advancing technology are causing a continuing and accelerating decline

in the quality of the environment and its ability to sustain life.

A significant global warming of the atmosphere would have profound environmental effects.

It would speed the melting of polar ice caps, raise sea levels, change the climate regionally

and globally, alter natural vegetation, and affect crop production. These changes would, in

turn, have an enormous impact on human civilization. Since 1850 there has been a mean

rise in global temperature of about 1 C (1.8 F). Most scientists have predicted that rising

levels of CO2 and other greenhouse gases will cause temperatures to continue to increase,

with estimates ranging from 2 to 6 C (4 to 11 F) by the mid-21st century. However, some

scientists who research climate effects and trends dispute the theories of global warming,

and attribute the most recent rise to normal temperature fluctuations.

Ozone Layer Destruction

During the 1980s, scientists began to find that human activity was having a

detrimental effect on the global ozone layer, a region of the atmosphere that shields

the Earth from the Suns harmful ultraviolet rays. Without this gaseous layer, which is

found at about 40 km (25 mi) above sea level, no life could survive on the planet.

Studies showed the ozone layer was being damaged by the increasing use of

industrial chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs, compounds of fluorine) that

are used in refrigeration, air-conditioning, cleaning solvents, packing materials, and

aerosol sprays. Chlorine, a chemical by-product of CFCs, attacks ozone, which

consists of three molecules of oxygen, by taking one molecule away to form chlorine

monoxide. Chlorine monoxide then reacts with oxygen atoms to form oxygen

molecules, releasing chlorine molecules that break up other molecules of ozone.

It was initially thought that the ozone layer was being reduced gradually all over the

globe. In 1985, however, further research revealed a growing ozone hole concentrated

above Antarctica; 50 per cent or more of the ozone above this area of the Earth was

being depleted seasonally (beginning each October). By late 2000 this hole had grown

to 28.3 million sq km (11 million sq mi) in area. A thinning of the ozone layer is the key

factor in the greenhouse effect, and exposes life on Earth to excessive ultraviolet

radiation, which can increase skin cancer and cataracts, reduce immune-system

responses, interfere with the photosynthetic process of plants, and affect the growth

of oceanic phytoplankton. Because of the growing threat of these dangerous

environmental effects, many nations are working towards eliminating the manufacture


and use of CFCs. However, CFCs can remain in the atmosphere for more than 100

years, so ozone destruction will continue to pose a threat for decades to come.

Divisions of the Atmosphere

Without our atmosphere, there would be no life on Earth. A relatively thin envelope,

the atmosphere consists of layers of gases that support life and provide protection

from harmful radiation. The illustration shows the temperature changes associated

with the various layers of the atmosphere and their altitude from the Earth's surface.


Hydrogen Fluoride Gas in the Atmosphere

The various concentrations of hydrogen fluoride (HF) gas in the upper atmosphere of

the Earth are shown here. The weakest concentrations are in the lower latitudes

around the equator and tropics; concentrations increase towards the poles where

they are densest. As HF gas contains no chlorine atoms it has no ozone depleting

effect. However, it is a powerful greenhouse gas and greatly contributes to global

warming. From this image, a processing of data collected by NASA satellites, it is

clear that the largest quantities of HF gas are to be found around Antarctica, where

the levels of ozone are at their lowest (the white circle at the pole indicates no satellite

data).

Ozone Layer Hole

The ozone hole over the South Pole is apparent in this satellite image taken in

October 1999. Low levels of ozone are shown in blue. Ozone is a gas that blocks

harmful ultraviolet sunlight. Industrial chemicals released into the atmosphere have

caused ozone to break down, opening holes in the ozone layer that tend to

concentrate at the poles.

The ozone layer is thinnest near the equator and thickest at the poles. Since ozone

formation depends on ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, the amount of ozone present

in the atmosphere at any given time and place varies. Also, the lifetime of an ozone

molecule in the stratosphere is between several months and several years, so the

distribution of ozone is affected by the motion of the atmosphere; ozone molecules

can be transported long distances before being destroyed.


There are long-term trends in ozone. Between 1979 and 1991, the ozone in the mid-

latitudes (roughly between 25 and 60) decreased by an average of around 4 per cent

per decade. In the northern hemisphere mid-latitudes, the decrease is greater in the

winter and spring, and less in the summer and autumn, while the southern

hemisphere mid-latitude decrease shows less seasonal variation.

A combination of factors is needed to produce the large loss of ozone over

Antarctica. A crucial first step is that the stratosphere over Antarctica becomes

isolated by strong westerly circumpolar winds of up to 100 m/s (up to about 200

knots) during the polar night. The temperature drop is such that a special type of

cloud, known as a polar stratospheric cloud (PSC), can form at temperatures below

about -80 C (-112 F). Very fast chemical reactions occur on the surface of these

clouds, converting inactive forms of chlorine to molecular chlorine (Cl2). When

sunlight returns in September, catalytic cycles involving chlorine atoms become

active and destroy the ozone.

The amount of chlorine in the atmosphere dramatically increased through the use and

release of chemicals known as chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs (compounds of

fluorine). First developed in 1930 by General Motors Research Laboratories as a safe

replacement for refrigerants in use at the time, their chemical inertness also made

them valuable in other areas of industry. Once released into the atmosphere, they

were transported into the upper atmosphere where they were broken down by the

much higher levels of ultraviolet. This is the only way in which CFCs released into the

atmosphere can be destroyed. Almost all of the chlorine in the atmosphere is due to

human activity.

No similar ozone hole has yet been seen in the Arctic because the meteorological

conditions in spring are very different from those in the southern hemisphere and

much warmer. However, there are chlorine molecules in the Arctic stratosphere, and

on the occasions that temperatures do decrease enough to favour ozone depletion,

chemical ozone destruction can also take place in the Arctic. According to the 1998

report on ozone depletion of the World Meteorological Organization, ozone had been

particularly low over the Arctic during late winter and spring in six out of the previous

nine years.

The most obvious danger from a reduction in the amount of ozone in the atmosphere

is the increase in the amount of ultraviolet radiation reaching the surface, particularly

the more dangerous UV-B. However, this must be considered in context. Springtime

ultraviolet levels in Antarctica are still less than typical values in low latitudes such as

Florida. The real danger is to local biological life. One concern is for the

phytoplankton living in the surface water around Antarctica. These small organisms

form a part of the important food chain. Other issues concerning the loss of ozone

include induced changes in climate, discussed later.

Although the ozone hole itself is a separate issue from the greenhouse effect,

changes in the amount of ozone in the atmosphere do have an effect on climate

change. Reductions in stratospheric ozone cause the lower stratosphere to cool

(roughly about 0.6 C per decade from 1979 to 1994).


Greenhouse Effect, term for the role the atmosphere plays in helping warm the Earth's

surface. The atmosphere is largely transparent to incoming short-wave (or ultraviolet)

solar radiation, which is absorbed by the Earth's surface. Much of this radiation is

then re-emitted as heat energy at long-wave, infrared wavelengths; some of this

energy escapes back into space, but much of it is reflected back by gases such as

carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, halocarbons, and ozone in the atmosphere.

This heating effect is at the root of the theories concerning global warming.

Under normal conditions the level of carbon dioxide in the

atmosphere remains constant, and trees absorb the same amount of

carbon dioxide that people produce. But in recent decades, our

planet has supported more people and fewer trees, leaving an

excess of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The amount of carbon

dioxide has been increasing by 0.4 per cent a year; the use of

fossil fuels such as oil, gas, and coal, and the slash-and-burn

clearing of tropical forests have been contributing factors in the

carbon cycle. Other gases that contribute to the greenhouse

effect, such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons, are increasing

even faster. The net effect of these increases could be a

worldwide rise in temperature, estimated at 2 to 6 C (4 to 11

F) over the next 100 years. Warming of this magnitude would alter

climates throughout the world, affect crop production, and cause

sea levels to rise significantly. If this happened, millions of people

would be adversely affected by major flooding


Greenhouse Effect Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

A significant global warming of the atmosphere would have profound environmental

effects. It would speed the melting of polar ice caps, raise sea levels, change the

climate regionally and globally, alter natural vegetation, and affect crop production.

These changes would, in turn, have an enormous impact on human civilization. Since

1850 there has been a mean rise in global temperature of about 1 C (1.8 F). Most

scientists have predicted that rising levels of CO2 and other greenhouse gases will

cause temperatures to continue to increase, with estimates ranging from 2 to 6 C

(4 to 11 F) by the mid-21st century. However, some scientists who research climate

effects and trends dispute the theories of global warming, and attribute the most

recent rise to normal temperature fluctuations.


Hydrocarbon Pollution from Vehicle Exhaust

Vehicle exhaust contains a number of airborne pollutants that adversely affect the

health of animals and plants and the chemical nature of the atmosphere. Carbon

dioxide and hydrocarbon emissions, two of the major components of vehicle exhaust,

contribute significantly to global warming and are produced as a by-product of the

combustion of petroleum-based fuels. Elevated carbon dioxide and hydrocarbon

levels cause sunlight to be reflected and trapped within the atmosphere, which slowly

raises the temperature of the atmosphere. Harold Taylor/Oxford Scientific Films


Marshy Spruce Forest Damaged by Acid Rain

Forests, lakes, ponds, and other terrestrial and aquatic environments throughout the world

are being severely damaged by the effects of acid rain. Acid rain is caused by the combination of

sulphur dioxide and nitrogen compounds with water in the atmosphere to produce rain with a very low

pH. Normally, rainwater has a pH of 6.5, making it very slightly acidic. However, with the addition of

sulphur and nitrogen compounds, the pH of rainwater may drop to as low as 2.0 or 3.0, similar to the

acidity of vinegar. In addition to chemically burning the leaves of plants, acid rain poisons lakewater,

which kills most if not all of the aquatic inhabitants. Steffen Hauser/Oxford Scientific Films

Also associated with the burning of fossil fuels is acid deposition, which is caused by the

emission of sulphur dioxide and nitrous oxides into the air from power plants and motor vehicles.

These chemicals interact with sunlight, moisture, and oxidants to produce sulphuric and nitric acids,

which are carried with the atmospheric circulation and come to Earth in rainfall and snowfall,

commonly referred to as acid rain, and as dry deposits in the form of dry particles and atmospheric

gases.

Acid rain is a localized problem. The acidity of some precipitation in northern North America

and Europe is equivalent to that of vinegar. Acid rain corrodes metals, weathers stone buildings and

monuments, injures and kills vegetation, and acidifies lakes, streams, and soils, especially in the

poorly buffered regions of north-eastern North America and northern Europe. In these regions, lake

acidification has killed some fish populations. It is also now a problem in the south-eastern and

western United States. Acid rain can also slow forest growth, and forest die-back has been major

problem. It is associated with forest decline at high elevations in both North America and Europe.


A. ORAL CYCLE ACTIVITY


CYCLE ACTIVITY

LISTENING

Mataram . Doc 17



Mataram . Doc 20


Listening Activity


Speaking Activity

Activity 1

In your age, you may find someone that you fall in love with. You need to express your love to the one using acceptable expressions. Do you know how to do it very well? You like reading English stories, dont you? The stories that you read may include love stories. Can you also write such stories effectively? Learn those and more in this unit through challenging tasks.

Activity 2

Have you ever fallen in love with someone? Have you ever told your parents that you love him/her very much? Reflect on your experience to answer the following questions. Compare your answers with your classmates.

1. Have you got a boyfriend or a girlfriend?

2. What makes you love him/her?

3. How do you express love to him/her? 4. Do you feel that expressing love to your parents is different from that of

to your girlfriend or boyfriend? Why?

5. What will you feel if someone you love leaves you?


Activity 3 How do you feel if someone you love leaves you? Here is an example of the situation. Listen to the dialogue between Ayu and Denias and then answer the questions. The listening script is in the Appendix. Situation: Denias tells Ayu that his father will send him to a boarding school far away. Questions

1. What does Denias tell Ayu? 2. What is Ayus feeling about what Denias tells her? 3. Why does Denias leave Ayu? 4. Where is he going to go? 5. When is Denias going to leave? 6. What does Ayu feel when she knows that the one she loves is

going to leave her? 7. How do they express their feelings

Activity 4 1. In the dialogue between Denias and Ayu, you find an expression: I love you. The expression is used to express love.

2. In the dialogue between Denias and Ayu, you also find an expression of sadness. Ayu says Oh no, Its very hard for me, Denias, to express that she is sad because Denias has to leave her


Activity 5 Listen to the dialogue among Adib, Virga, and Ayu. Do not forget to complete he summary to check your comprehension. The listening

script is in the TAPE RECORDER


TAPE SCRIPTS

Adib : Hi Denias, what happens? You look nervous.

Denias : Its nothing.

Adib : Really? Your face tells me that something is going on.

Denias : Yes, youre right. Actually Ive had an embarrassing experience.

Adib : What is it?

Denias : When I was on my way home, I saw an old lady trying to cross the street.

Adib : Why didnt you help her to cross the street?

Denias : I did. I helped her to cross the street.

Adib : Thats great. So, why do you look nervous?

Denias : Actually, she didnt want to cross the street. Shes just looking for her

shopping bag.

Adib : Hi, Ayu. How are you?

Ayu : Hi, Adib. You know, Im a bit annoyed.

Adib : Whats up? Is it related to the English test youve just had?

Ayu : Yes, youre right.

Adib : Were there some questions you couldnt answer?

Ayu : No. Actually, I can answer all the questions.

Adib : So, what made you annoyed?

Ayu : The next door class was very noisy. We couldnt concentrate well.

Adib : Did your teacher warn them or ask them to be quiet or something that

made them quiet?

Ayu : No. She said that that was okay because that was the nature of

performance classes.

Adib : I think our school should provide special room for performance classes.

Ayu : Yes, I agree with you. If performance classes have their own room, there will be

no such a disturbance.

Adib : And there will be no people annoyed because of such a noise.

Ayu : Absolutely, there wont any.


Activity 6


Andi : Hi, Retno. I watched your performance last night. Youre great. You can

be a great actress.

Retno : Really? Thanks. Actually I wasnt that great.

Andi : What are you talking about? You did it very well.

Retno : Actually, I cant do any play.

Andi : Why? I think your performance was great. Your acting in the play was

just great.

Retno : It wasnt me. Its my twin sister, Ratna.

Andi : Really? I thought it was you. Im sorry.

Retno : Thats fine.

Andi : No. It embarrasses me.

Retno : Thats all right. We are identical twins.

Virga : Hi Denias. Do you know what has happened to Adib? Hes been sacked.

He is no longer the student of our school.

Denias : Adib Ismawan? The one who always wears black jacket?

Virga : Yes.

Denias : Oh. Once, he put rubbish in my locker and some pebbles into my bag.

Virga : He did? What a naughty boy. You know, he put a stone inside my bag

and I didnt know when he did it.

Denias : What did you do, then?

Virga : I reported it to the school principal.

Denias : What happened then?

Virga : He was punished.

Denias : He deserved harsh punishments.

Virga : Yes, he did.


Reading Activity


Activity 2 Read the following texts.


Activity 3 Answer these questions based on the text.


Written Cycle Reading

Activity 4 Read the text quickly (scan read) to get the topic of the text.


Activity 1 Arrange the following jumbled sentences into a paragraph.

1. I don't have to spend time picking out my clothes every morning.

2. There are many reasons why I like wearing a uniform to school.

3. Wearing a uniform also saves money.

4. First of all, it saves time.

5. It is cheaper to purchase a few uniforms than to go out and buy lots of school clothes.

6. Most importantly, wearing a school uniform gives me a sense that I belong.

7. In addition, I don't have the pressure of keeping up with the latest styles.

8. I really think it adds to the feeling of school spirit and community.

9. So, why should we be uncomfortable wearing it?

Activity 2 Answer the following questions.

1. What is the topic of the paragraph?

2. Does the writer express his/her arguments?

3. What are his/her arguments?

4. Does the writer recommend something concerning the issue?

5. What is the recommendation?


Activity 3 Read the following text.


Higher Education for Woman In this modern era, there are still some parents who are reluctant about sending

their daughter to college. Such narrow attitude shown to woman higher education is largely due to the traditional role of woman in society. A woman is expected just to be a wife and a mother most parents believe that if their daughter gets married and chooses to be a housewife, then the higher education will be a waste. However an educated woman does not only make a better wife abut also contributor better thing to the large society.

Nowadays more women are successfully combining their career and marriage. Educated women are richer both emotionally and financially. They are able to find an outlet for monotonous drudgery of their housekeeping. They bring more satisfaction and contentment to their lives.

Depriving girl of higher education is crash discrimination. Time has changed. Modern society need the talents of its people regardless of gender. Today women work alongside men. In fact, in the last few decades women have made outstanding contributions to society.

Woman should be given the freedom to be educated whether they get married or go to work after finishing their education because it is only through education that a woman will find herself useful and discover what she wants in life. A woman who work is not an insult to her husband. Conversely, her husband should feel proud of her achievement since marriage is actually an equal partnership. Therefore, parents should not think that girls should receive less education just because they will get marriage one day.

Lets Make City Clean and Fresh A clean and fresh city will surely make the inhabitants healthy. Every morning

especially in dry season, all roads must be watered with clean water and swept by the workers of the regional government under the Majors instruction.

To keep the people from heavy pollution caused by cars, trucks and motorcycles, enough trees must be planted along all roads. Every building or house in the city must be surrounded short and small trees which bear colorful flower.

Bad and improper habits which cause disadvantages, bad smell and dangerous diseases to people such as smoking and throwing rubbish anywhere should be stopped at once.

The major of each city will have to think over the way how to educate people, so that they realize on how important cleanliness and health are for their own sake. Building more public lavatories at every busy place is very badly needed.

It will be wise if the Major decides a certain amount of fine to be paid by those who disobey the government regulation on cleanliness matter. A man who urinate not at lavatory, smoke not at smoking room or throw rubbish at the roads should be fined for instance. Besides dirtying the environment with cigarettes butts, smoking will also cause pollution and lungs disease to other people.

So bad habits and impolite attitude should be immediately stopped, otherwise the city will be dirty, unhealthy badly polluted and will never attract foreign or domestic tourist


Urban Environment

Urban Armenia

Large Soviet-built blocks of flats stand on a hillside in Yerevan, the capital of Armenia. Armenia is highly urbanized, with 69 per cent (1997) of all residents living in cities or towns. The country is relatively densely populated, at 100 persons per square kilometre (259 per square mile), but the population is dropping, largely as a result of emigration.

Jon Spaull/Corbis

Urban Environment, the physical environment in

urban areas with its complex mix of built and natural elements.

Urban environments are increasingly studied, and their

importance recognized, from a variety of perspectives. Some

interpretations of the term include social and cultural aspects

for instance the values, behaviours, and traditions of the urban

populationand these can have a profound influence on the

quality of life in urban areas, as can the competence and

accountability of the institutions appointed to manage or safeguard it.


London from the Air

This 1990s view of London, taken from the air, shows the citys developing financial district spread out around the River Thames. The Canada Tower at Canary Wharf in the London Docklands

then dominated both the skyline and the inner city area regeneration project around the old wharves. This image shows the tower before further development around it in the 21st century.

Richard Waite/Arcaid

An increasing proportion of the worlds population is living in urban areas: at the beginning of the 21st century, this proportion was about half, with around one-seventh in cities with 1 million

or more inhabitants. The urban environment might be considered the opposite of the natural environment, since it concentrates so many people, buildings, and economic activities and their supporting infrastructure such as roads, water pipes, drains, and electricity and telephone

systems. In larger cities, central business districts, downtown areas, and industrial estates may have little visible that can be associated with the natural environment. Human interventions have so radically shaped their environment that they seem far removed from natural processes and

resources. Other parts of cities, however, seem less removedfor instance parks, green belts, rivers, coastlines, or residential areas with large gardens and plenty of open space. However, all urban centres remain dependent on natural resources and on natural processes for disposing of their wastes.

Each professional discipline brings its own concerns to addressing environmental problems

in urban areas. Environmental health specialists are particularly concerned about the diminution of

environmental hazards; in most urban areas in Africa and many in Asia and Latin America, this

centres on the control of infectious and parasitic diseases whose incidence and transmission is

often increased by overcrowding, poor-quality housing, and inadequate provision for water supply,

sanitation, and drainage. Ecologists tend to focus on the massive disruption that large urban

centres and the materials they need usually bring to flora and fauna and the wider ecosystems of

which they are part. Political scientists may focus on environmental justice, highlighting the ways

in which the wealthy and powerful can obtain high-quality living environments within cities while

the poor and non-powerful face numerous environmental hazards. The different disciplinary

perspectives are much needed to make sense of the complex interweaving of natural and built

elements within urban centres and of the climatic, social, economic, and political factors that

influence them.


THE DIVERSITY OF URBAN ENVIRONMENTS

stanbul, Turkey Situated on the Bosporus Strait, stanbul is a major port and the largest city in

Turkey. The walls seen here are the remains of the original city, built in ad 324 by Constantine I of Rome.

Turkish Tourism Office While all urban centres share certain environmental characteristics, their size,

built forms, and spatial configurations are also very varied. While it is usually economic and political factors that determine a citys location and size, its buildings and their location and organization within neighbourhoods and the wider city are also much influenced by characteristics of the site, climatic conditions, and resource availabilities (especially building materials and fresh water). In many cities, it was particular local characteristics that encouraged the citys foundation there or subsequent expansionfor instance, good port facilities on rivers or the coast (e.g. Southampton, Buenos Aires), a fertile river valley (Vienna, St Louis), mineral resources nearby (Johannesburg, Potos), a site with a healthy and pleasant climate (Christchurch, San Francsico), or easy defensibility (stanbul, Quebec).

However, it has often proved difficult to protect the environmental advantages of city sites, when cities grow in population. Many cities have outgrown the natural advantages of their siteas, for instance, in Rio de Janeiro and Caracas where expanding populations have had to build homes on hillsides that are often too steep or unstable for safe residential development. The very large increases in the generation of air pollution have revealed the limitations of certain city sites for the dispersion of pollution. For instance, the site of Mexico City is of considerable natural beauty, well suited to a major city; it had been chosen by the Aztecs as the location of their great city Tenochtitln, before the arrival of Europeans. Until relatively recently, it was regarded as a pleasant city site. Now it has serious problems of air pollution because the high altitude, lack of winds, and shape of the valley in which it is situated make the site ill-suited to a very large city with a high concentration of industries and motor traffic, unless emissions from those sources are strictly controlled. Mexico City is also one among many cities where the demand for fresh water has outstripped the capacities of local supplies, or local sources have become too polluted to use. Many major cities that were once adequately served by local ground and surface water sources now have to import water from more distant catchment areas, often with damaging ecological consequences for these areas.


Cities have always been much influenced by the knowledge and culture of their inhabitants.

This can be seen both in the form of buildings and in the design of neighbourhoods and public

spaces. These characteristics were shaped by local climatic and geographical conditions; building

design, the materials used, and the organization of public and private spaces helped to moderate

extreme temperatures, provide protection from rain and wind, and, where needed, limit risks from

natural hazards. However, these cultural differences are disappearing. In many major cities, it is only

the historic centres or older settlements engulfed by the urban expansion that retain the

characteristics that, for instance, distinguish the Islamic city from the Hispano-American city. This

diversity is being eroded as modern building designs and materials become internationalized and as

the ready availability of fossil fuels and electricity allows temperatures within city buildings to be

controlled, regardless of building design and climatic conditions. Poverty is also eroding these

cultural differences in many cities in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Here, the illegal and informal

settlements in which so many city inhabitants live also present a more uniform picture, as

widespread use is made of temporary materials for buildings, and as homes are squeezed on to any

land site from which the inhabitants might escape eviction.

Motor vehicles are now a major influence on the environment and spatial form of virtually

all cities. Roads, highways, parks, and garages have reshaped older urban environments and

imposed their logic on new ones, especially where a high proportion of urban households own a car.

Motor vehicles can become a dominant influence, with roads and associated facilities taking up a

third or even half the total city area. Increasing levels of car ownership and use also encourage an

ever-increasing separation between homes and workplaces and a low-density urban sprawl.

Growing vehicle numbers can radically reshape cities even where less than a third of households

own private cars, especially in cities where central districts were developed before the advent of

motorized traffic. Most of the major cities of Europe, North Africa, Asia, and Latin America were

already important cities in the first half of the 20th century (many were important 200 years ago) so

their central areas have road systems that are now too small to accommodate a widespread use of

private cars.

The quality of the urban environment can also differ greatly between different areas of any

city. In many cities, this is partly the result of town planning, with zoning and land-use regulations

encouraging a concentration of industries, shops, middle-class housing, and low-income or public

housing in particular areas. However, income differentials are often a more potent cause. Thus there

are dramatic contrasts in housing and environmental quality between different areas of most cities in

Africa, Asia, and Latin America, even though there is little effective zoning and land-use regulation.

Here, the high-quality areas often match the standard of those in Europe and North America while the

low-quality areas have no provision at all for piped water, sewers, drains, and paved roads.


There are also large contrasts in housing and environmental quality between different areas

in most cities in Europe and North America. Many of their middle- and high-income areas (mostly but

not all in the suburbs and beyond) have among the best-quality urban environments in the world.

However, these same cities often have particular districtsmost but not all in central areaswhere

the quality of the housing and the wider environment has deteriorated as local employment

opportunities have declined and as the wealthier and more mobile people have moved out. The

poorest areas in cities like New York and Glasgow have infant mortality rates several times higher

than the wealthier areas of those cities, and average life expectancies that are many years lower.

This problem is particularly acute in many of the cities that were the great centres of industry several

decades ago, and which have been unable to attract new investment to reverse the rapid decline in

industrial production and employment. It is also particularly acute in cities that are divided into

different local government areas with little or no provision for a sharing of revenues or of city-wide

costs between the richer and the poorer areas.

All cities have what might be termed a mosaic of high- and low-quality areas. Many of the

high-quality areas are in the suburbs but the suburbs often have many low-quality areas too

especially in cities in Africa, Asia, and Latin America where much of the low-income population live in

illegal or informal settlements that developed in certain suburban or peri-urban locations. Many of the

low-quality areas may be in particular central-city areas but many cities still have central-city areas

with high-quality living environments and high average per capita incomes. The quality of the

environment in residential neighbourhoods can also change rapidlyfor instance as the wealthier

inhabitants of what had been a mainly middle-class inner suburb move out and cheap boarding

houses develop there with many households coming to share the space and facilities that formerly

served one household. Or as an inner-city area which had become a tenement district attracts

higher-income households who renovate the building stock, increase the local tax base and bring

pressure on the city authorities for improved services.

All urban environments represent a combination of individual and collective human efforts to

make the natural environment more convenient for human activitiesfor instance, allowing the

clustering of economic activities and the homes of the needed workforces. In virtually all urban

centres, there are legal and institutional measures to reduce both natural and human-created

environmental hazards within the urban boundaries. In most, there are also measures (usually set up

and enforced by higher levels of government) to protect natural resources in their surroundings and

to control pollution. In many, special measures are used to reduce risks from natural hazards such as

storms, earthquakes, floods, or landslides (for instance, more stringent construction regulations for

buildings in earthquake-prone areas). However, most urban environments show the limits of the law

and the institutions of governance to achieve this. In many urban centres, lower-income groups live

on land sites subject to flooding or landslides because it is too expensive for them to rent, buy, or

build housing on safer sites. Lower-income groups also tend to live in the noisiest and most polluted

areas. In some cases, industrial enterprises contravene laxly enforced environmental legislation.


ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS WITHIN URBAN AREAS

The tens of thousands of urban centres around the world include among the

most healthy and the most dangerous human environments. At their best, they provide

healthy homes and workplaces combined with centres of culture, entertainment, and

leisure. At their worst, urban environments can underlie infant mortality rates that are

so high that one third of children die before their fifth birthday and with much of the

urban population suffering unnecessarily from ill-health or injury from environmental

hazards. At least 600 million urban dwellers in Africa, Asia, and Latin America live in

homes and neighbourhoods in which housing is of such poor qualityovercrowded, and

with inadequate provision for piped water, sanitation, and drainagethat their lives and

health are continuously at risk.

Perhaps the main determinant of the quality of the urban environment is

whether the potential advantages of the concentration of population and production in a

city are well utilized, while avoiding the potential problems. Although the fact that cities

concentrate production and population may be considered a problem, it also gives them

some obvious potential advantages over rural settlements or dispersed populations. For

instance:

1) High densities mean much lower costs per household for the provision of

piped, treated water supplies, the collection and disposal of household and human

wastes, and most forms of health, educational, and emergency services. Within the

larger cities, the concentration of population can make sewage disposal problematic

given the volume of sewage generated. However, this is not the case in smaller cities

and townswhere most of the worlds urban population lives. There are many examples

of the successful and safe utilization of sewage for intensive crop production. There are

also many examples of effective sanitation systems that do not require high volumes of

water. The techniques for enormously reducing the use of scarce freshwater resources in

city homes and businesses, including recycling or directly reusing waste waters, are well

known.

2) The concentration of production and consumption in cities means a greater

range and possibility for efficient use of resources such as paper, glass, or plastics,

through material reclamation, recycling, and reuse, and for the specialist enterprises

that ensure this can happen safely.

3) A much higher population concentration in cities means a reduced demand

for land relative to population. In most countries, urban areas take up less than 1 per

cent of the national territory.


4) The concentration of production and households in cities means a considerable potential

for reducing fossil-fuel use where homes and workplaces need to be heatedfor instance through

the use of waste-process heat from industry or thermal power stations, or through co-generation

(combined heat and power systems).

5) Although growing levels of urbanization are associated with growing levels of private car

ownership, cities represent a much greater potential for limiting the use of motor vehicles and the

fossil fuels they need through walking, bicycling, or greater use of public transport.

From a health perspective, environmental problems are best identified if considered in

terms of the nature of the hazard (for instance biological pathogens, chemical pollutants, and

physical hazards) and the physical context in which they occur (for instance the home, workplace,

neighbourhood, or at the city level). The most serious urban environmental problems worldwide in

regard to health are the biological pathogens (disease-causing agents) in urban water, food, air, and

soil. For instance, diarrhoeal diseases are responsible for the deaths of hundreds of thousands of

infants and children living in urban areas each year and for tens of millions whose physical and

mental development is impaired by repeated attacks of diarrhoea. Tens of millions of urban dwellers

suffer each year from malaria or other diseases spread by insectsincluding hundreds of thousands

who die (mostly children under five). Hundreds of millions of urban dwellers of all ages suffer from

debilitating intestinal parasitic infestations caused by pathogens in the soil, water, or food, and from

respiratory and other diseases caused or exacerbated by pathogens in the air, both indoors and

outdoors. Cities in Europe and North America suffered comparable environmental health problems

only a century ago and it is a tribute to much-improved environmental management that this is no

longer the case.

There is a large and growing list of chemical pollutants which are known to cause or

contribute to ill health or premature death. Exposure takes place in homes, workplaces, or within the

ambient environment. Air pollution is sufficiently serious in many cities to have demonstrable health

impacts; industries, motor vehicles, and, in many cities, domestic cookers and heaters are the main

source. There is also a growing list of chemicals in the urban environment about which there is

concern, even if the precise health impact is not known.

Physical hazards are a major source of injury and premature death in most urban areas.

Domestic accidents are often among the most serious, especially if a high proportion of the

population live in overcrowded dwellings made of flammable materials as is common in many urban

areas of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Road accidents are often among the most serious causes of

injury and premature death; in many major cities, hundreds die from road accidents each year and in

some, thousands. It is pedestrians or cyclists who are most often killed or injuredand for every

accidental death, many times more people are seriously injured.


CITIES AND THEIR SURROUNDS

Landmarks of Rio de Janeiro Much of the city of Rio de Janeiro, in south-eastern Brazil,

lies between mountains and water. The massive statue known as Christ the Redeemer, right, tops Corcovado Mountain. The statue, built to commemorate Brazils first 100 years of independence from Portugal, seems to gaze over the city towards Sugarloaf Mountain, a bare granite rock rising out of Guanabara Bay.

Will and Deni McIntyre/ALLSTOCK, INC. All urban centres depend on natural resources drawn from

beyond their boundaries and virtually all dispose of their liquid and solid wastes in their surrounds. Many also export air pollutionfor instance as acid rain. Most draw fresh water from ground or surface sources outside their boundaries, with some needing to draw on freshwater resources from distant areas. Urban consumers and businesses also draw on the environmental resources of farmland, forests, and aquatic ecosystems beyond their boundaries. All these have environmental impacts on resources and ecosystems outside urban boundaries; the overall impact is often referred to as the urban centres ecological footprint.


Comodoro Rivadavia's Urban Sprawl

The slopes of the Chenque hills have limited the westward

expansion of Comodoro Rivadavia, forcing it to develop into a narrow

urban strip running parallel to the sea. From the top of the hills, the

city and the Atlantic Ocean can be seen in all their magnitude.

Located on the Gulf of San Jorge, Comodoro Rivadavia is the

commercial and transport centre for the surrounding areas. In

addition, it is the export centre for one of the country's most

important oil and gas producing regions.

Yann Arthus-Bertrand/Corbis

Historically, virtually all urban centres had ecological

footprints that were local, since the high cost of transporting food,

fresh water, and other natural resources limited the area from which

they drew. However, larger cities and wealthier consumers have

enormously increased the volume of natural resources consumed by

cities, while advances in transport and low fuel prices have allowed

resources to be brought from ever-greater distances. The consumers

and businesses in the worlds largest and wealthiest cities are using

natural resources drawn from all over the world. Legislation has

sought to reduce the environmental damage that urban wastes cause

in their surrounding ecosystems, but this has often proved difficult as

the environmental impacts take place outside the urban boundaries

and the jurisdiction of the urban authorities. It is even more difficult

to make urban populations feel responsible for the ecological

problems to which they contribute when the resources they draw are

from more distant ecosystems.


SUSTAINABLE CITIES

Cities have an important part in achieving sustainable

developmentthe meeting of human needs without a level of

resource use and waste generation that threatens the local, regional,

or global environment. Moving from a concern for the urban

environment to a concern for sustainable development has resulted

in a growing awareness of two new responsibilities of urban citizens

and governments. The first is a concern for the environmental impact

of urban-based production, consumption, and wastes on the needs of

all people, not just those within the urban jurisdiction. The second is

an understanding of the finite nature of many natural resources (or

the ecosystems from which they are drawn) and of the capacities of

ecosystems in the wider regional and international context to absorb

or break down wastes. This means setting limits on the rights of city

enterprises or consumers to use scarce resources and to generate

non-biodegradable wastes. These wastes include greenhouse gases:

global warming would bring many problems for urban centres

especially for the many major cities that are ports or on low-lying

coastal areasthrough sea-level rises and an increased instability of

weather patterns.

Perhaps the most important implication of this global

awareness for cities in the wealthier countries is the role of urban

authorities in promoting the needed unlinking of high living standards

from high levels of resource use and waste generation. Many cities

have taken the first step, especially those that have developed their

own Local Agenda 21s (modelled on the sustainable development

plan produced at the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit in 1992). As yet,

however, support for these plans has rarely emerged at national

levels of government. Contributed By: David Satterthwaite Microsoft Encarta


Climate Change Society

Climate Change Society: What affect will climate change have on our society as we know it? This

question poses considerable analytical problems for governments around the world. We all watched the events

of Hurricane Katrina unfold on our TV screens as the storm developed over the Gulf of Mexico. We saw how this

storm intensified and struck the coast of the USA with the ferocity unparalleled in recorded memory. These

events unfolded before our eyes and we were shocked at the aftermath, where we saw civil society breakdown

into what some called total anarchy. Now imagine the same event only 10 times worse, that is what the world

could be facing if the trends in climate change continue.

We are increasingly a coastal species, 44% of the

world's population (6.75 billion) or 2.9 billion people live within 150

km (ca.100 miles) of the coast. This is more people than inhabited

the entire planet in 1950. In 1995 alone, an estimated 50 million

people migrated to the coastal zones of the United States.

Mass migration to the coasts will continue in the decades

ahead. Most of this population growth is concentrated in large

coastal cities. As coastal population grows, along with the activities

that accompany this growth, the coastlines are radically altered. Clearing, land reclamation, and channelling for

flood and tidal waters destroy coastal wetlands. Port development, road building, coastal construction, tourist

resorts and the mining of beach sand for construction material obliterate shorelines. These activities often

increase coastal erosion and damage habitats, for example, seagrass beds are destroyed by boat propellers and

coral reefs poisoned, often away from the development site.

Much of our scientific research has focussed on trying to

understand the way that Climate Change and Global Warming

affects the planet. Recently, we are also turning our attention to the

human cost that these changes are having on our society. One

area of research that has attracted considerable attention has been

what effect weather has on crime and social disorder. We are also

beginning to understand the connection between biodiversity and

human well-being, particularly as ecosystems change as a result of

human activities.

If the predictions of Global Warming and Climate Change

are correct then society will have to develop adaptation and

mitigation strategies to combat these dramatic changes. Hurricane

Katrina provides us with a window into the aftermath of extreme

weather events and allows us to look other social problems such

as crime, health, and mental health enabling us address these

issues.

Finally, when considering ' climate change society ', what do we think about the moral responsibility of

various nations towards climate change, and does this vary between countries?


The UN secretary-general Ban Ki-moon and many others are convinced we are confronting a climate

emergency to which we must respond. Climate Change Society.

What is global warming?

Global warming is when the earth heats up (the temperature rises). It happens when greenhouse

gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and methane) trap heat and light from the sun in the earths

atmosphere, which increases the temperature. This hurts many people, animals, and plants. Many cannot take

the change, so they die.

What is the greenhouse effect?

The greenhouse effect is when the temperature rises because the suns heat and light is trapped in the

earths atmosphere. This is like when heat is trapped in a car. On a very hot day, the car gets hotter when it is

out in the parking lot. This is because the heat and light from the sun can get into the car, by going through the

windows, but it cant get back out. This is what the greenhouse effect does to the earth. The heat and light can

get through the atmosphere, but it cant get out. As a result, the temperature rises.

The suns heat can get into the car through the windows but is then trapped. This makes what ever the

place might be, a greenhouse, a car, a building, or the earths atmosphere, hotter. This diagram shows the heat

coming into a car as visible light (light you can see) and infrared light (heat). Once the light is inside the car, it is

trapped and the heat builds up, just like it does in the earths atmosphere.

Sometimes the temperature can change in a way that helps us. The greenhouse effect makes the

earth appropriate for people to live on. Without it, the earth would be freezing, or on the other hand it would be

burning hot. It would be freezing at night because the sun would be down. We would not get the suns heat and

light to make the night somewhat warm. During the day, especially during the summer, it would be burning

because the sun would be up with no atmosphere to filter it, so people, plants, and animals would be exposed to

all the light and heat.

Although the greenhouse effect makes the earth able to have people living on it, if there gets to be too

many gases, the earth can get unusually warmer, and many plants, animals, and people will die. They would die

because there would be less food (plants like corn, wheat, and other vegetables and fruits). This would happen

because the plants would not be able to take the heat. This would cause us to have less food to eat, but it would

also limit the food that animals have. With less food, like grass, for the animals that we need to survive (like

cows) we would even have less food. Gradually, people, plants, and animals would all die of hunger.

What are greenhouse gasses? Greenhouse gasses are gasses are in the earths atmosphere that collect heat and light from the sun.

With too many greenhouse gasses in the air, the earths atmosphere will trap too much heat and the earth will

get too hot. As a result people, animals, and plants would die because the heat would be too strong.


What is global warming doing to the environment?

Global warming is affecting many parts of the world. Global warming makes the sea rise, and when the

sea rises, the water covers many low land islands. This is a big problem for many of the plants, animals, and

people on islands. The water covers the plants and causes some of them to die. When they die, the animals lose

a source of food, along with their habitat. Although animals have a better ability to adapt to what happens than

plants do, they may die also. When the plants and animals die, people lose two sources of food, plant food and

animal food. They may also lose their homes. As a result, they would also have to leave the area or die. This

would be called a break in the food chain, or a chain reaction, one thing happening that leads to another and so

on.

The oceans are affected by global warming in other ways, as well. Many things that are happening to

the ocean are linked to global warming. One thing that is happening is warm water, caused from global warming,

is harming and killing algae in the ocean.

Algae is a producer that you can see floating on the top of the water. (A producer is something that makes food for other animals through photosynthesis, like grass.) This floating green algae is food to many consumers in the ocean. (A consumer is something that eats the producers.) One kind of a consumer is small fish. There are many others like crabs, some whales, and many other animals. Fewer algae is a problem because there is less food for us and many animals in the sea.

Global warming is doing many things to people as well as animals and plants. It is killing algae, but it is

also destroying many huge forests. The pollution that causes global warming is linked to acid rain. Acid rain

gradually destroys almost everything it touches. Global warming is also causing many more fires that wipe out


whole forests. This happens because global warming can make the earth very hot. In forests, some plants and

trees leaves can be so dry that they catch on fire.

What causes global warming?

Many things cause global warming. One thing that causes global warming is electrical pollution.

Electricity causes pollution in many ways, some worse than others. In most cases, fossil fuels are burned to

create electricity. Fossil fuels are made of dead plants and animals. Some examples of fossil fuels are oil and

petroleum. Many pollutants (chemicals that pollute the air, water, and land) are sent into the air when fossil fuels

are burned. Some of these chemicals are called greenhouse gasses.

We use these sources of energy much more than the sources that give off less pollution. Petroleum,

one of the sources of energy, is used a lot. It is used for transportation, making electricity, and making many

other things. Although this source of energy gives off a lot of pollution, it is used for 38% of the United States

energy.

What are people doing to stop global warming?

People are doing many things to try to stop global warming. One thing people are doing is carpooling.

Carpooling is driving with someone to a place that you are both going to. This minimizes the amount of

greenhouse gases put into the air by a car.

Another thing that people are doing is being more careful about leaving things turned on like the

television, computer, and the lights. A lot of people are taking time away from the television, and instead, they

are spending more time outdoors. This helps our planet out a lot. Now, more people are even riding busses,

walking to school, and riding their bikes to lower the amount of greenhouse gases in the air. Planting trees and

recycling also helps. If you recycle, less trash goes to the dump, and less trash gets burned. As a result, there

are fewer greenhouse gasses in our atmosphere.

Watch what you buy. Many things, such as hairspray and deodorant, now are made to have less of an

impact on the atmosphere. Less greenhouse gasses will rise into the air, and global warming will slow down.

What is the government doing to stop global warming?

The government is doing many things to help stop global warming. The government made a law called

The Clean Air Act so there is less air pollution. Global warming is making people get very bad illnesses that

could make them disabled, very sick, and sometimes even die. The Clean Air Act is making many companies

change their products to decrease these problems. Part of the law says that you may not put a certain amount of

pollutants in the air. Hairspray and some other products, like foam cups, had this problem. Making and using

these products let out too much volatile organic compounds (VOCs), ozone-destroying chemicals

(chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and related chemicals (such as CO2) into the air. Now, almost all of these

products have a label on them telling people what this product can do to the environment and many people. By

2015 all products listed on the Clean Air Act will have this label on them:


The Global Carbon Cycle

The global carbon cycle can be divided into two categories: the geological, which operates over

large time scales (millions of years), and the biological - physical, which operates at shorter time scales

(days to thousands of years) and as humans we meddle with both categories.

The global carbon cycle refers to the movements of carbon, as it exchanges between reservoirs

(sinks), and occurs because of various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes. The ocean

contains the largest active pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth, but the deep ocean part of this pool

does not rapidly exchange with the atmosphere. Below in the diagram, you can get some idea where and

how carbon is stored in the whole Earth system. The global carbon cycle is usually thought to have four

major carbon sinks interconnected by pathways of exchange. These sinks are;

the atmosphere,

the terrestrial biosphere (which usually includes freshwater systems and non-living organic material, such

as soil carbon),

the oceans (which includes dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota),

and the sediments (which includes fossil fuels ).

Carbon exists in the Earth's atmosphere primarily as the gas carbon dioxide (CO2). Although it is

a very small part of the atmosphere overall (approximately 0.04% and rising fast), it plays an important role

in supporting life. Other gases containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons

(the latter is one we introduced and are still adding to). These are all greenhouse gases whose

concentration in the atmosphere are increasing, and contributing to the rising average global surface

temperature.


Global Carbon Cycle - Sinks and Storage

Carbon is taken up from Earth's system in several ways:

1. When the sun is shining, plants perform photosynthesis to convert carbon dioxide into

carbohydrates, releasing oxygen in the process. Deforestation and land clearing pose serious problems to

the carbon cycle, and obliterating this sink means more carbon is forced into the atmosphere.

2. At the surface of the oceans towards the poles, seawater becomes cooler and CO2 is more

soluble. Cold ocean temperatures favour the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere whereas warm

temperatures can cause the ocean surface to release carbon dioxide. With seas warming this means CO2

is not so easily absorbed, and remains in the atmosphere. This is coupled to the ocean's thermohaline

circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean's interior. During times when

photosynthesis exceeded respiration, organic matter slowly built up over millions of years to form coal and

oil deposits. All of these biologically mediated processes represent a removal of carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere and storage of carbon in geologic sediments.

3. In upper ocean areas of high productivity, organisms form tissue containing carbon, and some

also form carbonate shells or other hard body parts. Apart from trees in forests, phytoplankton in the

Earth's oceans are very important organisms that soak up carbon. The seas contain around 36000

gigatonnes of carbon, and again and in warmer seas, organisms cannot produce carbonate shells at the

same rate, and increasingly acidic seas dissolve shells, or make it difficult to create shelly material. This

means of course that carbon dioxide is not being taken up as quickly through this process and more

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