Linguistik Sistemik Fungsional dan Pengajaran Membaca dalam Bahasa InggrisEmi Emilia, Universitas Pendidikan IndonesiaKonaplin 1, 2008Bandung, Balai Bahasa UPI

Abstrak

Linguistik sistemik fungsional telah memainkan peranan yang penting dalam perkembangan berbagai ilmu, termasuk dalam ilmu mengenai analisis wacana kritis (Martin 2002; Young & Harrison, 2004), ilmu penerjemahan (House, 1997; Baker, 2000), dan terutama dalam pengajaran bahasa Inggris, khususnya pengajaran menulis melalui pengembangan pendekatan genre-based (Christie, 2005; Feez, 2002; Gibbons, 2002) dan pengajaran membaca melalui pengembangan program Learing to Read, Reading to Learn (Martin & Rose, 2005; Acevedo & Rose, 2006).

Makalah ini akan membahas peran linguistik sistemik fungsional dalam pengajaran bahasa Inggris, khususnya pengajaran membaca melalui pengembangan program Learning to Read and Reading to Learn baru-baru ini di Australia. Makalah ini akan memaparkan sebagain kecil dari hasil penelitian posdoktoral yang dilakukan penulis pada tahun 2007 di salah satu sekolah menengah di Victoria, Australia.

Makalah akan pertama-tama membahas beberapa prinsip dasar linguistik sistemik fungsional dan bagaimana prinsip-prinsip dasar ini dikembangkan dalam program Learning to Read, Reading to Learn. Kemudian pembahasan akan dilanjutkan dengan pemaparan pengambilan data melaui observasi, analisis tulisan siswa dan wawancara dengan para guru mengenai pendapat mereka tentang manfaat serta tantangan yang mereka hadapi dalam menerapkan program ini di Australia, yang dalam beberapa hal relevan dengan konteks pengajaran bahasa Inggris di Indonesia.

Data dari observasi, analisis tulisan siswa dan wawancara dengan para guru mengindikasikan bahwa program Learing to Read, Redaing to Learn dapat membantu siswa meningkatkan kemampuannya tidak hanya dalam pelajaran bahasa Inggris tetapai juga pelajaran lain.

Makalah akan diakhiri dengan rekomendasi mengenai kemungkinan penelitian lebih lanjut mengenai aplikasi program Learning to Read, Reading to Learn di sekolah-sekolah di Indonesia untuk mengkaji efektivitas serta fisibilitas dari program ini dalam membantu siswa belajar bahasa Inggris dan pelajaran–pelajaran lain.

A. Linguistik sistemik fungsional

Linguistik sistemik fungsional atau systemic functional linguistics (selanjutnya disingkat SFL), merupakan teori sosial bahasa yang dikembangkan oleh Halliday (1976, 1985, 1994) dan para pengikutnya, seprti Christie (1987), Martin (1992, 1997), Bloor & Bloor (1995), Mathiessen & Nesbitt (1996). SFL telah mempunyai banyak pengaruh dalam dunia pendidikan di berbagai belahan dunia (Connor, 1996) dan pengaruhnya yang paling menonjol adalah dalam pengajaran menulis (Wells, 1999), analisis wacana kritis (Faircoulgh, 1992;1995;2003; Pennycook, 2001), terjemahan, Nord (2000, House, 1997) dan terakhir terhadap pengajaran membaca, khususnya dalam program Reading to Learn yang dikembangkan oleh Rose (2006, Rose & martin, 2005, Rose & Acevedo, 2006 dan Acevedo & Rose, 2007). Program Reading to learn inilah yang akan dibahas dalam makalah ini.

Ada beberapa prinsip dasar teori SFL, dan yang paling relevan dengan pengajaran membaca yang dikembangkan dalam program Reading to Learn adalah sebagai berikut:

Prinsip dasar pertama adalah bahwa bahasa merupakan semiotik sosial (social semiotic) (lihat Halliday, 1985c:3;1994c; Butt, 1966; Christie, 2002; Eggins, 1994). Prinsip ini diambil dari konsep bahasa dari Saussure, yang mengatakan bahwa bahasa merupakan sistem tanda (signs), bahwa bahasa merupakan satu kesatuan dari “form which signifies (signifiant or signifier) and an idea signified (the signifie atau signified)” (lihat Culler, 1976:19; 1975:16), Semiotik dalam linguistik sistemik fungsional, sering didefinisikan sebagai “studi umum mengenai proses memaknai (semiosis), tidak hanya makna yang kita fahami lewat bahasa, tetapi juga makna yang kita fahami melalui setiap jenis objek, kejadian atau tindakan atau satu nilai simbolik dalam masyarakat kita.” (Lemke, 1995:9). Dalam hal ini, Halliday mengatakan:

Linguistics is an aspect of the study of meaning. There are many other ways of meaning, other than through language. … These will include both art forms such as painting, sculpture, music, dance, and so forth, and other modes of cultural behaviour that are not classified under the headings of forms of art, such as modes of exchange, modes of dress, structures of the family and so forth. … But to explain this general notion, we cannot operate with the concept of a sign as an entity. We have to think rather of systems of meaning, systems that may be considered as operating through some external form of output that we call a sign, but that are in themselves not set of individual things, but rather networks of relationships. It is in that sense that I will use the term semiotic to define the perspective in which we want to look at language: language as one among a number of systems of meaning that, taken all together, constitute human culture (Halliday, 1985c,: 4; lihat juga Eggins, 1994, p. 16).

Prinsip dasar kedua adalah bahwa bahasa lebih merupakan sumber untuk memaknai atau memahami ketimbang sebagai sistem aturan (Christie, 1990; Halliday, 1994a; Halliday & Martin, 1993). Pandangan ini didasari oleh pendapat Pike (seperti dikutip dalam Mathiessen & Nesbitt, 1996:50) bahwa “Teori linguistik merupakan alat atau sumber untuk mengungkapkan apa yang kita amati”. Bahasa, seperti dikatakan oleh Hasan (1996:14) dipandang sebagai “a shaper of reality for those who use it”. Dengan prinsip dasar ini, SFL melihat makna sebagai pilihan, sebagai satu set alternatif yang mungkin dipakai oleh penuturnya ketika berbahasa. Halliday (1994a:xxvi) mengatakan bahwa “SFL sees meaning as choice, which is not a conscious decision made in real time but a set of possible alternatives”. Dengan nada yang hampir sama, Christie & Unsworth (2000) mengukuhkan:

SFL describes language in terms of set of choices of meaning, a set of options, such as singular/plural, past, present, future tense, positive/negative polarity is called a system, and hence the name is systemic. When language is described in this way, every choice embodied in an utterance or text carries in terms of the potential choices, not made (Christie & Unsworth, 2000:2).

Prinsip dasar ketiga, yang mempunyai dampak yang sangat besar terhadap pengajaran bahasa, khususnya pengajaran bahasa dengan menggunakan program Reading to Learn ( yang juga dipengaruhi oleh pendekatan genre-based (dan penelitian bahasa), adalah bahwa SFL mengkaji teks, bukan kalimat, sebagi unit dasar untuk menegosiasi makna (Halliday & Martin, 1993; Halliday, 1994; Christie & Unsworth, 2000). Teori SFL menyarankan bahwa objek pengajaran dan penelitian bahasa seharusnya melibatkan text secara keseluruhan, bukan ujaran atau kalimat yang didekontekstualisasikan (decontextualised sentences or utterance) (Christie & Unsworth, 2000; Eggins, 1994: Rose, 2006, 2007b,c,d). Dengan konsep ini, SFL memperlakukan tata bahasa sebagai realisasi wacana, dan dari situlah muncul konsepsi tata bahasa fungsional, yang secara alamiah berkaitan dengan semantik teksnya. Hal ini, seperti yang dikatakn oleh Halliday & Martin (1993), memungkinkan analisis organisasi semantik dan sistem makna yang dicontohkannya dari berbagai jenis teks, termasuk teks ilmiah. Dengan menggunakan prinsip ini pula, maka program Reading to Learn, seperti yang akan dipaparkan dalam bagian B nanti, mensyaraktan pengajaran bahasa Inggris yang berbasis teks secara keseluruhan sebagai satu kesatuan yang utuh.

Prinsip dasar keempat dari SFL yang juga diaplikasikan dalam program Reading to learn adalah bahwa SFL sangat memperhatikan keterkaitan antara teks dan konteks sosial ketimbang teks sebagai entitas yang didekontekstualisasikan (Halliday, 1975; Eggins, 1995; Hasan, 1996). Dalam hal ini, Halliday & Martin (1993: 22-23)

menulis: “SFL looks … for solidarity relationships between texts and the social practices they realize”. SFL menganggap bahwa konteks bersifat kritis terhadap makna dalam kejadian linguistik apa pun, bahasa apa pun. Apa yang kita tulis atau yang kita katakan, menurut Halliday & Martin (Ibid) sangat tergantung kepada topik, kapan dan dalam kesempatan apa (lihat juga pembahasan yang sama oleh Eggins, 1994:7). Dalam konteks ini, Bloor & Bloor (1995) menegaskan:

Each individual utterance in a given context has a particular use. … A speaker might say ‘good afternoon’ as a means of greeting a friend at an appropriate time of a day. We can say that the communicative function of ‘good afternoon is greeting. This greeting can have a different communicative function when it is said in different situation, for example when a teacher says this to a student who comes late. These words become a reprimand (Bloor & Bloor, 1995:8).

Semua prinsip dasar dari linguistik sistemik fungsional di atas telah disarikan oleh Eggins (1994), yang mengatakan bahwa:

… common to all systemic linguists is an interest in how people use language with each other in accomplishing everyday social claims about language: that language use is functional; that its function is to make meanings; that these meanings are influenced by the social and cultural context in which they are exchanged and that the process of using language is a semiotic process, a process of making meanings by choosing (1994, p. 2).

Selain dari prinsip dasar di atas, SFL menjunjung tinggi beberapa nosi penting, di antaranya adalan nosi teks dan konteks dan metafungsi bahasa yang akan dipaparkan berikut ini

Istilah text (teks) berasal dari sebuah kata dalam bahasa Latin, yang berarti menenun, dan didefinisikan sebagai kata-kata atau kalimat yang ditenun bersama untuk mencipkatakn satu kesatuan, atau “words or sentences woven together to create a single whole”, seperti yang diungkapkan oleh Christie dan Misson (1998:8). Namun demikian, konsep teks dalam linguistik sistemik fungsional mirip dengan konsep wacana dalam analisi wacana kritis (critical discourse analysis) atau apa yang sering disebut dengan CDA, yakni penggunaan bahasa dalam tulisan maupun lisan (Fairclough & Wodak, 1997; Fairclough, 1992).

Teks merupakan ”satu kesatuan bahasa yang lengkap secara sosial dan kontekstual” (Kress, 1993:24), yang mungkin bisa dalam bentuk bahasa lisan maupun tertulis, dan lebih preferable dari awal sampai akhir (Eggins, 1994:5). Adapun pertimbangan apakah bahasa sebagai teks atau bukan tidak berkaitan dengan ukuran atau panjang atau bentuk dari bahasa itu, tetapi pada makna, seperti yang dikemukakan oleh Feez & Joyce (199a):

Whether a stretch of language is a text or not has nothing to do with its size or form. It has to do with the meanings of the stretch of language working together as a unified whole. The single word stop on a road sign and Tolsoy’s novel War and Peace are both texts because they are unified wholes. One page of War and Peace, though longer than a stop sign, is not a text because it cannot stand alone as a unified whole (1998a: 4; lihat juga Lemke, 1991; Christie & Misson, 1998).

Pendeknya istilah teks mengacu pada “contoh bahasa apa pun, dalam medium apa pun, yang bisa difahami oleh seseorang yang mengetahui bahasa itu” (Halliday & Hasan, 1976, dikutip dalam Halliday & Mathiessen, 2004:3).

Selain itu, kata konteks awalnya berarti ditenun bersama, dengan prefix kon menunjukkan makna “being together” dan lebih dari berabad-abad, kata konteks mengacu pada elemen-elemen yang menyertai teks (Christie & Misson, 1998:8).

Dengan mengikuti konsep konteks situasi dan konteks budaya dari Malinowski dan konsep situasi yang dikembangkan oleh Firth (Halliday, 1985c; Eggins, 1994), Halliday mengembangkan konsep konteks dengan mengukuhkan bahwa ada tiga aspek dalam situasi apapun yang mempunyai dampak terhadap penggunaan bahasa, yakni field (topik), mode (moda, seperti lisan atau tulisan) dan tenor (channel simbolik) (lihat Halliday 1976; 1985; Halliday & Martin, 1993; Hasan, 1996; Martin, 1997).

Selain itu, berkenaan dengan metafungsi bahasa, menurut SFL semua bahasa memiliki tiga metafungsi bahasa. Ketiga metafungsi bahasa ini adalah: metafungsi ideasional (fungsi observer), metafungsi interpersonal (fungsi intruder), dan metafungsi tekstual. Metafungsi ideasional berkaitan dengan bagaimana bahasa digunakan untuk merepresentasikan pengalaman, atau untuk mengorganisasikan, memahami dan mengekspresikan persepsi tentang dunia dan kesadaran kita. Metafungsi interpersonal berkenaan dengan penggunaan bahasa untuk men-set up dan mempertahankan interaksi antara pengguna bahasa. Selain itu, metafungsi tekstual berkaitan dengan bagaimana bahasa beroperasi untuk menciptakan wacana yang utuh, berkesinambungan, kohesif dan koheren (Halliday, 1975; Christie & Unsworth, 2000; Bloor & Bloor, 1995).

Menurut Halliday, setiap fungsi bahasa berinteraksi dengan variable konteks (field, tenor dan mode) dan mempunyai tata bahasa berbeda (Halliday, 1975; Eggins, 1994; Martin, 1997; Feez & Joyce, 1998; Christie & Unsworth, 2000; Colombi & Scleppegrel, 2002). Sejalan dengan Halliday, Eggins menulis:

- The field of a text can be associated with the realization of experiential meanings, realized through the Transitivity patterns of the grammar.

- The mode of a text can be associated with the realization of textual meanings, realized through the Theme patterns of grammar.

- The tenor of a text can be associated with the realization of interpersonal meanings, realized through the Mood patterns of the grammar (Eggins, 1994: 78 ; lihat juga Martin, 1997: 4 untuk pembahasan yang hampir sama ).

Mengingat keterbnatasan ryuang dalam maklalah ini, sayang sekali tatabahasa fungsional tidakj bisa diterangkan dengan rinci.

B. Program Reading to Learn dalam mengajar membaca dalam bahasa Inggris

The Reading to Learn program, yang didasari oleh teori bahasa fungsional merupakan satu program pengajaran mebaca dan menulis yang menggunakan genre sebagai kerangka untuk melatih guru dalam strategi untuk “scaffolding” membaca dan menulis dalam semua mata pelajaran dalam kurikulum dan dalam semua sector pendidikan (Rose, 2006b, p. 12). Program Reading to Learn, menurut Rose (2006a), juga merupakan program pengajaran literasi yang dirancang untuk memungkinkan semua siswa membaca dan menulis pada taingkat yang tepat di usia, tingkat atau kelas dan bidang studi yang mereka pelajari. Program Reading to Learn, menurut Acevedo & Rose (2007, p. 1), merupakan pendekatan intensif untuk membantu mengembangkan kemampuan membaca dan menulis siswa dengan menggunakan kualitas yang tinggi, cocok pada usianya teks kurikulum kmainstream dan dapat digunakan baik di kelas mainstream maupun konteks di luar itu, dengan kelas besar atau kecil, dan memebrikan contoh bahasa literat baik untuk teks fiksi maupun faktual.”

The Reading to Learn program, menurut Rose & Acevedo (2006) juga merupakan program inovatif yang mencapai keberhasilan yang sangat besar dalam mengatasi gap antara siswa yang berprestasi dan yang dikatakan “at risk” di tingkat sekolah menengah dan pada waktu yang sama mempercepat pembelajarn bagi semua siswa. Program Reading to Learn telah dikembangkan dengan guru SD, sekolah menengah dan universitas dengan berbagai latar belakang di Australia dan di negara lain, seperti Afrika (Rose, 2006a).

Program Reading to Learn Like mempunyai kerangkan konseptual dan prinsip dasar sebagai berikut.

Kerangka KonseptualKerangka konseptual dari program Reading to Learn, menurut Rose, Gray & Cowey (1999) terdiri dari tiga, yakni: model bahasa lisan dan tulisan, model membaca dan model belajar.

Model bahasa, seperti diindikasikan dalam bagian sebelumnya dari makalah ini, adalah model bahasa fungsional yang telah dikembangkan oleh Halliday, didasarkan pada systemic functional grammar untuk mengalihkan keterampilan membaca dari rendah ke tinggi (Rose, Gray & Cowey, 1999; Acededo & Rose, 2007). In a functional model, language is conceived of as in terms of texts that are exchanged in social contexts, between speakers, writers, and readers. Each text involves three levels of organisation, as sequences of meanings, as patterns of wordings that realise these meanings, and as soundings or letter patterns that realise these wordings. These levels of organisation are known technically as discourse semantics (sequences of meanings in a text), lexicogrammar (including both words and wordings) and graphophonics (sound and letter patterns) (Acevedo & Rose, 2006).

Sementara itu, model membaca yang dipakai dalam program R to Learn melibatkan dua set keterampilan yang bersifat integral dalam “fluent reading” (Rose, Gray & Cowey, 1999), yakni: keterampilan memroses ortografik dari pola huruf dalam kata dan menerka makna dari cara dimana teks tertulis “unfolds”.

Terakhir, model belajar yang diterapkan dalam program Reading to Learn, menurut Rose, Gray & Cowey (1999), adalah model belajar yang juga dipakai oleh pendekatan genre-based dalam mengajar menulis, yakni the zone of proximal development yang dikembangkan oleh Vygotsky (1978) yang memandang belajar sebagai proses sosial, yang terjadi dalam interaksi antara pembelajar dan guru dalam satu ‘zone of proximal development’ yang ada antara apa yang bisa dilakukan oleh siswa sendiri dengan apa yang bisa mereka capai dalam interaksi mereka dengan guru (Rose, Gray & Cowey, 1999, see also Derewianka, 1990; Wells, 1999; Feez & Joyce, 1998). Teori belajar lain, yang dipakai, menurut Rose, Gray & Cowey adalah scaffolding dari Bruner (1986).

The Reading to Learn program, menurut Rose, Gray and Cowey (1999) telah dikembangkan dari model bahasa Halliday, dilengkapi dengan teori genre dan register dan penelitian mengenai membaca antara orang tua dan anak di rumah sebagai hasil penelitian sebagai hasil penelitian yang dilakukan Halliday (1976) & Painter (1995).

Prinsip dasar

Program Reading to learn, menurut Rose & Acevedo (2006) memberi guru dua set keterampilan untuk memp[ercepat pembelajarn dan menutup adanya perbedaan kemampuan di kelas. Pertama adalah keterammpilan berinteraksi dengan siswa sekitar teks tertulis yang mendukung semua siswa di kelas untuk membaca teks tingkat tinggi dengan pemahaman kritis dan menggunakan apa yang telah mereka pelajari dari membaca untuk menulis teks berhasil. Keterampilan kedua yang dimiliki oleh guru adalah keterampilan untuk memilih teks utama dalam kurikulum untuk dibahas secar aintensif dan untuk menganalisis pola bahasa dalam teks itu untuk merencanmakan pelajaran mereka.

Program Reading to Learn mempunyai tiga prinsip utama sebagai berikut (Acevedo & Rose, 2007):

1. Reading is a fundamental mode of learning in primary and secondary school. Therefore explicit teaching of reading needs to be integrated with teaching the curriculum at all levels, and all teachers need skills to teach reading and writing in their subject areas.2. All students can and need and should be taught the same level of

skills in reading and writing across the school curriculum so that the gap between more and less successful students narrows, instead of widening over the school years (see also Rose, 2006).

3. Learning takes place when teachers support students to do learning tasks that are beyond their independent assessed abilities, thereby allowing for learning activities to be designed to support all students to succeed at the same high level.

Elsewhere, Rose, in his report about aboriginal education in Board of Studies, New South Wales (http://ab-ed.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/go/english-literacy-7-10/the-approach-to-teach) also states that a key principle of the Reading to Learn approach is that all learning activities require learners to perform tasks of some kind. In order for learners to perform a task with any degree of success, according to Rose, we have to assume that they have been prepared in some way to do it. At its most basic this is what scaffolding means: preparing learners to perform a learning task successfully by showing them how to do the task. But in addition to preparing learners for a task, learning activities often involves a third step, during or after the task is done. Learning, Rose & Acevedo (2006, p. 36) also state, takes place through successful performance of tasks, whether this is reading a sentence in a new book, or learning a manual activity. However, what is emphasised in the program, Rose & Acevedo (2006, p. 36) further advise, is that learners must always be adequately prepared to

perform each task successfully, before they are asked to do it. Once they have successfully performed the task they are then cognitively prepared for a third step that elaborates their understanding of the activity they have completed. This program has three part cycle of Prepare – Task – Elaborate, which is called the scaffolding interaction cycle and is applied at all levels of the Reading to learn program (Rose & Acevedo, 2006, p. 36; see also Christie, 2005).

This cycle, can be illustrated below:

Figure 3.1Scaffolding Interaction Cycle

(adapted from Rose, 2006, p. 2, and Rose & Acevedo, 2006).In a similar vein, Rose (2006a, see also Martin & Rose, 2007) also says that the core of the pedagogy is a carefully designed pattern of classroom interaction, in which the teacher prepares all students in a class to successfully identify features of reading texts, or select elements to write. Students responses are consistently affirmed, and then elaborated by defining new words, explaining new concepts, or discussing with students’ experience. By this means all students are engaged in the activity and their learning is extended. This pattern is known as the scaffolding interaction cycle.

According to Rose (2007, p. 7), the preparation may occur immediately prior to the task, or at any time previously, and the task may be repeatedly modelled before the learners first performs it. But in addition to preparing learners for a task, learning activities often involve a third step, during or after the task is done, by elaboration. This is done when the teacher or parent uses students’ or child responses to their questions to move on to the next step in a lesson, elaborating on what they already know.

The scaffolding cycle can support all students to operate at much higher elevls than they can independently, as Vygotsky’s model of zone of proximal development in social learning predics (Rose, 2004, p. 11). This means, Rose (Ibid) says, any learner can potentially be

scaffolded to read any text that is within the range of difficulty for their age or grade level.

Regarding tasks in reading and writing, Acevedo & Rose (2007, see also Martin & Rose, 2005) state that “In order to prepare students for success in learning, we first need to understand the nature of the task we are asking of them. So, our starting point for teaching literacy is with the tasks involved in it. Reading and writing, Acevedo & Rose further state, are hugely complex activities that involve recognising and using patterns of language at three levels:

At the level of text, readers must recognise what a text is about and how it is organised, for example as sequences of events in stories or as chuncks of information in factual texts.

At the level of sentences, we must recognise how words are arranged in groups of words or phrases, and what each word group means, such as whole the sentence is about (e.g. Molly and Gracie), what they are doing (went for a walk), where (along the river) and when (after breakfast).

At the level of the word, we must recognise what each word means, and how letters are arranged into patterns that spell the word. That is we recognise words from both above (their meaning in the sentence and text) and below (their patterns of letters) (Acevedo & Rose, 2007, p. 2, see also Martin & Rose, 2005, p. 6).

The complexity of reading text, as illustrated by Martin & Rose (2005, p. 6) can be described below:

Figure 3.2Complexity of reading task by strata and rank

(adadpted from Martin & Rose, 2005, p. 6; Rose & Acevedo, 2006, p. )

To read with understanding, Acevedo & Rose (Ibid) go on to say that, all these patterns must be recognised and interpreted simultaneously. Likewise, to write successfully we must have all these language patterns at our disposal:

At the level of the text, writers must be able to select all the elements of a story or factual text and organise them into coherent sequences.

At the level of the sentence we must select words that are appropriate to the topic and arrange them in meaningful word groups.

At the level of word, we must have a variety of appropriate words to choose from and know how to spell them.

Acevedo & Rose (2005) also suggest that the complexity of language patterns in written texts varies between types of texts and subjects in the school curriculum. For example, the language patterns of factual texts in science or society and environment are very different from those in literary fiction, and both are different from the language patterns in arguments and text responses which evaluate issues or literacy texts.

Moreover, regarding the teaching of whole reading and writing task from the top down, Acevedo & Rose (2007, p. 2) suggest that to teach reading and writing, language tasks must be broken down into manageable components so that students can learn them one step at a time. The Reading to Learn program /approach teaches all the components of the reading and writing tasks systematically, from the top down. A text only makes sense if we know something about its topic and how it is organised. This is how we recognise what is happening at each step of a text, and what to expect as we read it, as well as where we are going as we write.

Likewise, Acevedo & Rose (2007) say that a sentence only makes sense in relation to the sentences that come before and after it in a text. If we understand the text, we will have a good idea what each sentence is about. A word only makes sense in relation to the other words in a sentence and a text, so if we understand the text and the sentence, we will have a good idea what each word means.

So, Acevedo and Rose (2007) suggest that to teach reading we start by telling the students what a text is about as it unfolds at each step. Then we tell them what each sentence is about, and support them to read and understand each one for themselves by telling them what the

words mean. Then we may show how to recognise and write the spelling patterns in some words, which they know from sentences in the text.

To teach writing, Acevedo & Rose (2007, p. 2) also suggest that we can then build back up, from the words they can now spell automatically, to writing sentences and paragraphs fluently, to creating whole new texts. At the same time, Acevedo & Rose add, the process involves continual listening and speaking, developing skills in fluency and comprehension. This, according to Acevedo & Rose, is achieved by carefully planning classroom interactions so that all students are continually successful and communication never breaks down.

According to Rose (http://ab-ed.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/go/english-literacy-7-10/the-approach-to-teach...), Rose (2007); Rose and Acevedo (2006), Martin & Rose, 2005; the cycle consists of six stages that begins with Preparation before Reading and finishes with Independent Writing. Activities in each stage, as illustrated in Rose (http://ab-ed.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/go/english-literacy-7-10/the-approach-to-teach..) are as follows:

Preparation before Reading

For a start, for learners to comprehend a text they need to recognise its genre and field, and to have enough experience to interpret the field as it unfolds through the text (Martin & Rose, 2005, p. 7). Essentially, the same strategy can be used at any level, by summarising the sequence of a text’s field as it unfolds through its generic phases in terms that learners can readily understand. The reading task can then be further decomplexified by simply reading the text aloud to the class. This means that weak readers need not struggle, either to work out what is going on in each phase, nor to recognise words from their letter patterns, but can attend easily to the words they are read aloud.

In this stage, according to Rose (2007a, p. 55) students are first prepared to understand the text in general terms by way of the following: a) providing the background knowledge they need to understand its field; b) explaining what it is about; and c) summarising the phases of meaning through which it unfolds in terms they can all understand. These, Rose further says, allow all students to follow the text with general understanding as it is read aloud, without having to struggle to

work out what is going on at each step, nor to struggle decoding letter patters of unfamiliar words.

Students’ understanding of the overall meanings of a text, according to Martin & Rose (2005, p. 7) provides a sound context for recognising the more detailed meanings within each sentence. At this stage, students can begin to read the wordings for themselves, but the complexity of this task can be alleviated by doing so a little at a time, and again providing adequate support to recognise wordings from the perspective of meaning. This, Martin & Rose further state, involves three preparation cues: Firstly a paraphrase of the meaning of the whole sentence in commonsense terms, together with its relation to the context or preceding text; secondly a position cue that tells learners where to look for the wording, and thirdly the meaning of the wording in general or commonsense terms.

Depending on the level of technicality, Martin & Rose (2005) and Rose (2007 a) say that it can be very easy to orient learners to the genre and field of a text before reading it. To quote Cloran (1999, 2000) and Hasan (1990, 1991), Rose (2007a) further says that this is in fact what parents often do while reading to their children, particularly in literate middle-class families. Since the field of children’s written stories is frequently wildly outside of their experience, Rose adds that parents may spend considerable time talking them through the field, using the illustrations, before they even begin to read.

Detailed Reading

In this stage, when students have successfully identified a wording, students are prepared for an elaboration of its meaning, by defining technical or literate wordings, by explaining new concepts or metaphors, or by discussing students’ relevant experience. In general the distinction between the meanings used for preparing to identify wordings, and the elaborations that follow, is between meaning within and meaning beyond the clause. In this way students are given access to the total complexity of language patterns in the text, but in manageable steps.

The interactive process of Detailed Reading allows every learner to read a text that is appropriate to their age or grade, with fluency and comprehension, no matter how weak their independent reading skills may be. We have termed the three move cycle of Prepare, Task and Elaborate a scaffolding interaction cycle, diagrammed for Detailed Reading in Figure 3.1.

This cycle formally describes the micro-interactions involved in parent-child reading (further discussed by Rose 2004a), and in the genre writing pedagogy. The formal description, Rose says, enables teachers to carefully plan a discussion around the language features in a text, to think through which language features will be focused on at each step, how the teacher will prepare students to identify them, and how they will elaborate on them.

In this stage, students are also prepared to read each sentence in a short passage, by means of three preparation cues: Firstly a paraphrase of the meaning of the whole sentence in commonsense terms, together with its relation to the context or preceding text, secondly a position cue that tells learners where to look for the wording , and thirdly the meaning of the wording in general or commonsense terms.

This Detailed Reading, according to Martin & Rose (2005, p. 8), provides more intensive support for text deconstruction than does the genre-writing cycle, so it is also possible to provide greater support for text construction, by using the language patterns of the original text in greater detail. This dimension of Reading to Learn, as Martin & Rose (2005, p. 8) say, varies between writing narrative and factual texts. Both involve replicating the genre but writing stories initially uses the same discourse and grammatical patterns of the original with a new field, while writing factual texts initially borrows the field and discourse patterns of the original with a shift in mode.

Preparing for Writing

Once all students can read the passage with fluency and comprehension, they can use the text as a basis for jointly writing a new text. In this stage, they may write up the wordings they have highlighted in a factual text, as notes on the board. If it is a story, argument or text response, they may brainstorm new content for a text that will use the same sophisticated language patterns of the text they have read.

According to Rose (2005, p. 16), techniques for reading and writing factual texts can be used at any level, from primary to tertiary study, in any curriculum area. They support learners to develop skills in reading texts with understanding, identifying key information, selecting information for notes, and using it to write texts of their own. Along the way they also develop skills in interpreting and critiquing both the content of texts and how they are constructed.

The Preparing before Writing phase for factual texts, according to Martin & Rose (2005), includes more extensive exploration of the overall field, as the text is typically embedded in a curriculum topic. Again, Martin & Rose suggest, the teacher summarises the topic of the text and the sequence in which it unfolds, in words all learners can understand, but also using some of the terms in the text for learners to key into as it is read aloud. During and after reading, key terms and concepts may also be briefly explained.

In this phase, according to Martin & Rose (2005, p. 9, see also Rose 2005) activities can include sentence making, spelling and sentence writing. In sentence making activity, students can write a paragraph from the reading text on cardboard strips, and this can be done in groups. In this phase the teacher guides learners to identify and cut out wordings. In groups learners take turns to cut up sentences into phrases, and then words, put them back together, mix them up, rearrange them and construct new sentences with the cards.

Sentence making, according to Rose (2005, p. 15, see also Martin & Rose, 2005, p. 9) has three broad functions: it intensifies the identification and discussion of meanings and wordings from Detailed Reading, it enables learners to manipulate wordings to create meaningful sequences without the added load of writing, and as individual words are cut out they can be used to practise spelling. In sentence making activities, Rose (2005, p. 16) says, the learners are taking greater control of the reading and writing process, whether in groups or individually.

Joint RewritingThe notes that have been written on the board, according to Rose (2007b,c,d) then provide a framework for students to jointly write a new text on the board, guided by the teacher. With factual texts, Rose suggests, the content of the reading text, in the notes, is rewritten in wordings that are closer to what students would write themselves, with the teacher providing whatever language resources they need, and guiding the construction. While the field of the new text is the same as the original, Rose adds, the mode may be less highly written. With stories, arguments and text responses, the reading text is followed very closely as the grammatical patterns of each sentence are used with new lexical items. In these cases the field is completely different but the mode and tenor remain the constant. This, Rose argues, provides an extremely powerful scaffold for all students to acquire the sophisticated language resources of accomplished authors, critics and academics.

Individual Rewriting

Before students are expected to write independently, a further stage of preparation is provided, in which they individually practise rewriting the same text as they have written jointly. For factual texts, Rose (2007b) suggests, this may involve erasing the joint text from the board, but leaving the notes, which students use for their own text. For stories, arguments or text responses, students now have two modes the original readings and the joint text, to practise using the same language patterns with their own content, which may be partly derived from the earlier brainstorming activity. In both cases, more experienced students are able to practise independently, allowing the teacher to provide more scaffolding support for weaker students.

Independent Writing

Independent Writing is the final task, on which students can be assessed (Rose, 2007b, p. 53). Students’ success in Independent Writing, according to Rose, will reflect how well they have been prepared for it and the five preceding stages in the teaching cycle provide students with a high level of preparation, so that the Independent Writing of all students is always much better than they could do previously. Independent writing of factual texts, according to Rose (2007b, p. 77) often involves research project, in which students select a specific topic that is a variation on the topic they have studies with the class.

Moreover, Rose (2007b, p. 53) further suggests that students’ success in the writing task will depend on how the task is framed. If they are asked to write the same kind of text as the passage from Detailed reading, that have been practised in Joint and Individual Rewriting, students’ success will be assured. In writing factual texts, students can be asked to write among others, a report or explanation about a related topic.

The six stages of the Reading to learn program can be illustrated in Figure 3.3 below.

Figure 3.3The stages of the Reading to Learn program

Adapted from Rose, 2006b, p. 1 and Rose & Acevedo, 2006, p.36

The sequence of activities outline above, according to Martin & Rose, (2005, p. 9) intensifies and extends the support provided by the genre pedagogy. Firstly, support for deconstruction in the genre cycle is intensified in two steps in the Reading to Learn cycle: Preparing before Reading and Detailed Reading. Secondly, support for Joint Construction phase is intensified in two steps, first with Sentence Making or Note Making and Joint Rewriting. Thirdly, Independent Construction is further supported with an initial step of Individual Rewriting before Independent Writing.

Moreover, Martin & Rose (2007, p. 17) say that these stages can be practised at any level of academic study, with texts of any difficulty. At more advanced levels, short segments of academic texts may be studied with Detailed Reading, in order to orient students to the field in key passages (such as abstracts) as well as to their academic language features. Longer passages of text may also be studied in less detail, by identifying and elaborating key elements in each paragraph, rather than each sentence. Moreover, Rose (2006a) says that as the pedagogy is designed to integrate literacy teaching with classroom

practice across the curriculum it is ideally suited for implementing the English syllabus along with other syllabi.

3.4.3 Research results on the Reading to Learn program

Research results on the Reading to Learn program, as reported in Rose & Acevedo (2006, p. 1) indicate that the program is innovative, achieving remarkable success in closing the gap between successful and ‘at risk’ students in the middle years of schooling (years 4-9) at the same time as it accelerates the learning of all students, regardless of their starting points. It has been implemented over three years with over 1000 students, as part of middle years professional learning project of the Catholic Education Office Melbourne. The results of the application of the program, Rose & Acevedo further state, include average literacy gains at twice the expected rates of development and as high as four times expected rates, when implemented during a few lessons per week with whole classes. Following the success of the research phase, the Middle Years Literacy Intervention Project, the Reading to Learn has now become the recommended approach to accelerate the literacy development of ‘at risk’ learners in the middle years at the CEOM (Rose and Acevedo, 2006, p. 36).

The teaching strategies have been proven to enable weak readers to rapidly learn to read and write at grade appropriate levels, and advanced students to develop language understandings well beyond their independent competence (Rose, 2006a, see also Culican, 2004, 2005; Mc Crae et al, 2000). Through the Reading to learn project, as reported by Rose (2004, p. 9), demonstrated that primary and secondary teachers can build reading into their curricula in ways that can enable the whole class to engage actively at a high level, and the weakest students to become successful readers and writers across the curriculum. The basis for this is the scaffolding interaction cycle, (as described above) and an awareness of the poatterns of meaning in the texts we are working with, derived from functional linguistics.

Moreover, in terms of attempts at helping indigenous children at schools, report by Rose, Gray & Cowey (1999), indicates that the scaffolding strategies in the Reading to Learn program offer the opportunities that indigenous students are asking for to read and write at their year levels. Rose, Gray & Cowey (1999) also suggest that the scaffolding literacy approach an achieve remarkable results for indigenous students if they are carefully and consistently applied.They are not difficult for teachers

to take on, but they do require a serious commitment at the levels of classroom practice, curriculum planning and school management to be successful.

For teachers, Rose and Acevedo (2006) further state that the program provides teachers with two sets of skills for accelerating learning and closing the ability gap in their classrooms. The first is a set of skills for interacting with students around written texts, that supports all the students in a class to read high level texts with critical comprehension, and tend to use what they have learnt from their reading to write successful texts. The second is a set of skills for selecting key texts in the curriculum to work with intensively, and to analyse the language patterns in these texts to plan their lessons (2006).

Finally research reported in this book, as will be discussed in Chapter 8 also indicate that teachers who implement the program find it useful to help students, even the weakest ones in the class to understand what they read and the task that they have to accomplish with their reading.

Program Reading to learn merupakan program yang telah dikembangkan sekitar satu dasa warsa terakhir di Australia oleh David Rose (2007) dfan beberap orang lain seperti Roose & martin (2005), Rose & Acevedo (2006, 2007). Program ini juga bisa dikatakan sebagai program pengembangan dari pendeketan genre-based yang teladh lebih daulu dikembangkan di Australia oleh kelompok yang dinamakan Sydney School (Johns, 2002).

Program Reading to learn muncul mengingat setelah pendekatan genre-based dikembangkan dan dipikirkan kembali oleh para pelopornya, seperti J. R. Martin. Menurut Martin & Rose, pendekatan genre-based terlalu menekankan pada pengajaran menulis. Walaupun pengajaran membaca pasti termasuk di dalamnya, tetapi bagaimana kemampuan membaca siswa dikembangkan kurang begitu terlihat. Dengan demikian maka mereka (Martin & Rose) berusaha mengembangkan program yang bisa dikatakn sebagai penyempurnaan pendekatan genre-based dalam mengajar menulis dan membaca. Martin & Rose mengaggap kemampuan membaca perlu mendapat penekanan yang lebih dalam pengajaran mengingat tidak ada orang yang akan bisa menulis kalau mereka tidak mengetahui topik yang ditulisnya ata tidak mempunyai latar belakang pengetahuan yang cukup mengenai topok yang dityulisnya. Pemahaman ini hanya akan bisa diperoleh melalui membaca.

Program Reading toLearn mengutamakan beberapa prinsip, di antarnya adalah: beberapa prinsip, dan di antaranya adalah sebagai berikut:

1.2.3.

Untuk mengimplementasikan prinsip-prinsip dasar di atas, maka program Reading to learn menekankan enam tahap yang perlu dilakukan dalam mengaplikasika program Reading to learn di kelas, yang akan dipaparkan di bawah ini.

1. Preparation before reading2. Detailed reading3. Preparing for writing4. Joint Rewriting5. Individual rewriting6. Independent writing

C. Metode penelitianSebagaimana telah dikemukakan di atas, makalah ini merupakan sebagain kecil dariu hasil penelitian yang dilakukan di Australia mengenai pengajaran membaca dan menulis di salah satu sekolah menengah di Victoria Australia. Penelitian menggunakan desain studi kasus dan menggunakan tiga macam teknik pengumpulan data, yakni observasi kelas selama enam minggu di tiga kelas. Observasi dilakukan dua kali seminggu ketika guru menenrapkan program Reading to learn dalam mengajar membaca untuk membantu siswa mehamai apa yang mereka baca dalam pelajaran bahasa Inggris dan juga pelajaran lain.

Sekolah yang diobservasi dalam rangkan penelitian mengenai penerapan program Reading to learn adalah salah satu sekolah Katolik di Australia. Sekolah nini mempunyai banyak siswa imigran teruytama dari Yaman. Sekoalh ini menerapkan kurikulum yang teriontegrasi, dimana siswa belajar satu topik untuk beberapa pelajaran yang saling berhubungan. Misalnya, dalam pelajaran sejarah, siswa dibantu oleh guru untuk memahami teks yang mereka baca dengan mebacahasnya di kelas dan membacbya secara detail seperti mdisarankan oleh Rose (2007). Karena itu, topik yang dibicarakan relevan dengan pelajarnm keagamaan, seperti sejarah tentang Ibrahim dan Musa, dan sebagainya.

Setelah setiap sesi, wawanca aiunformalk dengan apara guru dilakuakn dan setelah observasi kelas selesai, di akhir pengumpulan data, maka wawancara dengan para guru dilakukan. Wawancara dilakukan selama 15 menist, dan direkam. Jenis wawancara yang dipakai adalah sem-structured untuk memberikan kekebasan kepada yang diwawancara untuk bisa menjawab pertanyaan yang diberikan

dan pada waktu yang bersamaan memungkinkan pewawancara mendapat data yang diperlukan (Nunan, 1992). Pertanyaan wawancara ditujukan untuk mendapat data mengenai cara menerapkan program Reading to learn, apa manfaat dari program itu untuk guru dan siswa, serta tantangan yang mungkin dihadapi oleh guru kalau mereka menerapkan program ini di konteks lain, seperti di Indonesia, dimana kelasnya besar dan kemampuan bahasa Inggrios siswanya masih belkum memadai. Selain dari observasi dan wawanc ara, peneliti juga sebenarnya mengumpulkan hasil karya siswa, Namun, mengingat keterbatasan waktu dan tempat dalam amkalah ini, hasil karya siswa tidak dapat dipaparkan dalam makalah ini. Makjalah ini hanya akan memfokusdkan pada pe,aparan dan pembahasan data dari observasi dan wawancara saja.

D. Presentasi dan analisis dataSebagaimana disebutkan di atas, makalah ini hanya akan memaparkan sebagain kecil hasil penelitian dan data yang dipaparkan dan dianalisis hanya data yang diperoleh dari observasi dan wawancara dengan guru yang telibat dalam penelitian berkaitan dengan penerapan program Reading to learn.

Data observasi menunjukkan bahwa guru menerapkan program Reading to learn sesuai dengan pa yang disarankan oleh Rose. Tahap-tahap pengajaran yang dilakukan bisa dikategorikan sebagai berikut:

Preparing before readingDalam tahap ini guru berusaha memberikan latar belakang pengtahuan mengenai topik yang akan dibahas. Dengan bertanya mengenai hal-hal yang relavan dengan apa yang akan mereka baca,. Guru berusaha untuk membantu siswa menghubungkan apa yang akan mereka baca dengan kehidupan siswa sehari-hari.

Detailed Reading

Dalam tahap ini, guru dan siswa mebaca teks yang dibahas, dan mempraktekkan apa yang disarankan oleg Rose, bahwa guru dan siswa membahas istilah-istilah teknis yang berkaitan dengan topik yang akan dibahas. Guru menyarankan kepada siswa untuk melihat kamus dan bahan lain yang relevan untuk membantu mereka memahami teks yang dibaca. Misalnya dalam mempelajari teks tentang sejaram yakni tentang Abrahan & Moses, maka siswa dianjurkan untuk membawa buku kitab yang berisi ”outline Zchart of Bible History”. Siswa juga diminta untuk menghighligh teks yang mereka baca, sesui mdengan apa yang dianjurkan Rose (2007b,c,d).

Yang menarik dari tahap ini adalah bahwa tahap ini tidak hanya dilakukan untuk membantu siswa membaca teks yang dibaca dalam poelkajaran bahasa Inggris saj, tetapi ,emngingat sekolah ini menggunakan integrated kurikulum, maka dalam mengajar mata pelajaran lain pun, tahap ini dipakai, yakni guru berusaha untuk menjelaskan setiap konsep, istilah bahwa suruhan yang ada dalam tugas yang akan dilakukan oleh siswa.

Misalnya, ketika siswa harus mengerjakan tugas mengenai Ibrahim dan Musa, maka guru pun menerangkan setiuap konsep yang ada dalam tugas itu. Misalnya ketika ada tugas yang berbunyi seperti ini:

”Construct a TIMELINE”, maka guru menrangkan apa yang dimaksud dengan TIMELINE. Guru beruaha untuk membantu setiap siswa memahami apa yang harus dilakukan dan dikerjakan, Dia juga merasa berkewajiban bahwa setiap anak tahu dan bisa mengikuti dan mengerjakan setiap Task yang harus dia lakukan. Tahap selanjutnya yang dilakukan oleh guru adalah Joint Rewriting, dimana siswa dan guru mrnuliskan kembali apa yang telah dibahas dalam teks untuk menguji pemahaman siswa mengenai apa yang telah dibacanya. Masing-masing siswa berkontribusi terhadap penulisan di appan tulis mengensai apa yang telah emerka baca.

Setelah Joint Writing maka siswa menulis secara individu mengani apa yang telah mereka baca. Mengingat teks yang akan mereka tulis merupakan fa

E. KesimpulanBab ini telah menegaskan bahwa slinguistik sistemik fungsional merupakan teori bahasa sosial yang menkankan beberapa konsep penting, seperti metafungsi bahasa, keterkaitan antara teks dan konteks dan intertekstualitas. Sekait dengan metafungsi bahasa, bab ini telah mengemukakan bahwa menurut teori linguistik sistemik fungsional, semua bahasa memainkan tiga fungsi secara bersamaan, yakni fungsi eksperiensial atau ideasional, yakni fungsi untuk menceritakan apa yang terjadi, pengalaman pemakai bahasa. Fungsi yang kedua adalah fungsi interpersonal, fungsi yang menunjukkan bahwa bahasa digunakan sebagai alat untuk berinteraksi dengan yang lain.. dalam fungsi ini, bahasa digunakan sebagai alat untuk menanggapi apa yang dikatakan atau dilakukan oleh orang lain kepada kita. Dan ffungsi yang ketiga adalah bahasa sebagai alat untuk menyusun gagasan atau ide kita supaya gagasan atau ide kita bisa diterima dengan baik sehingga proses komunikasi akan berjalan dengan baik pula.

Mengingat ketiga fungsi bahasa itu berkaitan dan direfleksikan dalm penggunaan tata bahasa, maka bab selanjutnya dari buku, yakni Bab 3, ini akan membahas tata bahasa sistemik fungsional.