GEOLOGY Inggris Teknik Makalah

8/10/2019 GEOLOGY Inggris Teknik Makalah

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CHAPTER 11

BASIC THEORY

Basic basic geology of oil and gas

A. Petrology

Is the science that studies the rocks forming the Earth's crust that covers the

way, the rock composition and its relationship with processes and geological

history.

The rocks forming the earth's crust can be generally divided into three types:

1. Rock Frozen

Formed as a result of freezing magma in the earth's surface and above the

earth's surface (melt).

2.

Sedimentary rocks
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Formed as a result of deposition of material derived from fragments, a

lump of rock that were destroyed by natural processes, then transported by

water, wind, ice and accumulated in one place and compressed /compacted

into a new rock layers. Have the feature layered sedimentary rocks as a

result of repeated deposition.

3. Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks derived from igneous rocks or sedimentary rocksmodified in the earth as a result of temperature and pressure is very high,

resulting in changes in physical and chemical properties.

B. Trap Reservoir

Reservoir trap is an impermeable layer (impermeable) which restricts the

movement of oil and gas, where the gas that enters the layer can not be out so

caught / trapped there.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Quartzite.jpg/220px-Quartzite.jpghttp://3.bp.blogspot.com/-TuNnYWT9UlQ/TrnOTUZ5crI/AAAAAAAAAJM/R5IJcQknfW0/s1600/datrius.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Quartzite.jpg/220px-Quartzite.jpghttp://3.bp.blogspot.com/-TuNnYWT9UlQ/TrnOTUZ5crI/AAAAAAAAAJM/R5IJcQknfW0/s1600/datrius.jpg


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Types of Traps Reservoir:

1)

Structural traps

Structural traps are traps of the most original and to this day is the most

important pitfalls. The various elements that make up the trap insulating

layer and the reservoir layer, so as to trap hydrocarbons, due to tectonic

symptoms or structure, such as folding and faulting.

2)

Trap Stratigraphy

Levorsen (1958), suggests that the stratigraphic trap is a general term for

the traps that occur due to a variety of lateral variations in lithology a
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reservoir layer in the continuation or termination of the distribution of oil

in the earth.

The principle of stratigraphic traps is that oil and gas trapped in its journey

upwards unobstructed from all directions, especially from the top and

sides, because the reservoir rock facies disappear or change into another

rock.

3) combination trap

Hydrocarbon trap is a trap many structural traps with a combination of

stratigraphic traps.

C. Petroleum Geology

Petroleum geology is one branch of geology to determine the presence of

oil under the ground, then explore and produce it. In general there are two types of

petroleum geology, the geological petroleum exploration that includes a search of

petroleum and petroleum geology production. Production of petroleum in oil is

not meant to make petroleum, but just making facilities to drain the oil from

underground to above ground, using drilling and pumps.

The theory of the existence of petroleum there are two, namely the theory

of organic and inorganic theory. Organic theory is now widely embraced by

geologists, petroleum which is believed to be produced by the remains of dead

organisms millions of years ago. While most of the inorganic theory developed in

Eastern Europe and Russia where experts believe that oil can be produced instead

of organic material. Principles of petroleum geology are now commonly used is
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organic theory that oil is often called fossil fuels. When the inorganic theory is

proven, it will appear again petroleum resources which have not been explored.

Frozen rock

Igneous rock or often called igneous rocks are rocks formed from one or

more minerals and formed by the freezing of magma. Based on the texture of

igneous rocks can be distinguished into plutonic and volcanic igneous rock. The

difference between the two can be seen from the large rock constituent minerals.

Plutonic igneous rock formed from freezing magma generally relatively slower so

that the constituent minerals are relatively large. Examples of these plutonic

igneous rocks such as gabbro, diorite and granite (which is often used as home

decoration). While the volcanic igneous rock is generally formed from magma

that is very rapid freezing (eg due to volcanic eruptions) so that the smaller

constituent minerals. Examples are basalt, andesite (which is often used as the

foundation of the house), and dacite

Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks often called sediment sedimentary rock formed

naturally in the Earth's surface from fragments of rock that solidifies and hardens

back into rock. Formation of sedimentary rocks affected by water power, wind or

ice. Most sedimentary rocks show characteristic layering. Although only 5% of

the Earth's crust is built by sedimentary rocks, but 75% of the rocks are exposed at

the surface of the Earth is a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rocks are classified

into three categories:

clastic sedimentary rocks, which originated from previous rock fragments;

chemical sedimentary rocks, which occur usually in the ocean or in the

lake from the precipitation of dissolved minerals;

organic sedimentary rock, formed from the former or shells of animals or

plants. That is why fossils found only in sedimentary rocks. The most common of

clastic sedimentary rocks are sandstone and mudstone. Sandstone formed from


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sand and mudstone rocks derived finer material (silt or clay). Sandstone and

mudstone formed from fragments carried by the wind, water, river, ocean currents

and the glacier. Sand dunes are usually deposited as in the desert; or as a stream

sediment and sediment beaches. While the finer clay tends to be longer float in

sea water and will settle on a calmer atmosphere, such as the deep ocean floor or

on the lake bottom. This sediment pile material would weigh and pressing the

layer below it becomes more compact. The precipitate was then glue each other to

form a hard rock. Chemical sedimentary rocks are most commonly referred to as

rock evaporates, because formed from the evaporation of sea water or lake water.

Rock materials dissolved in the water will crystallize forming minerals such as

gypsum and halite. Gypsum is a mineral material used industry sabagai plaster

materials; halite salt is the base material. The most common of organic

sedimentary rock is limestone (limestone). Marine animals such as corals and

mollusks have shells made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). When the animals die,

their shells will be piled into the seabed and form a thick pile of calcium

carbonate. Piles of calcium carbonate will condense and glue to form limestone.

The shell of an animal or plant species into these rocks diesebut preserved fossils.

Coal including organic sedimentary rocks.

Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks is one of the major groups of rocks that are the result

of transformation or alteration of a type of rock that have been there before,

protolith, by a process called metamorphism, which means "change in form".

Protolith were subjected to heat (greater than 150 Celsius) and extreme pressure

will change the physics and / or chemistry major. Protolith can be sedimentary,

igneous rocks, or other metamorphic rocks older. Some examples of metamorphic

rocks is Gneiss, slate, marble, and skist. Metamorphic rocks up a large part of the

Earth's crust and are classified by texture and chemical composition and mineral

from (facies metamorphic) They formed deep below the earth's surface by a large

emphasis on the rocks above and pressure and high temperature. They also

formed by the intrusion of molten rock, called magma, into solid rock and is


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formed mainly on the contact between magma and rock high temperature.

Research metamorphic rocks (currently exposed at the Earth's surface due to

erosion and removal) gives us valuable information about temperatures and

pressures that occur deep within the earth's surface.

Not infrequently layer hollow rocks covered by a layer that is not hollow

like mud, salt, or lime. It is forming a kind of cage for hydrocarbons collected in

one part of it. As the tectonic movement, the rock layers turned into folds that

cause hydrocarbons come to adjust himself. Hydrocarbons are trapped and then

move up to the bottom layer is not hollow, with gas formation at the very top, the

oil and water settle to the bottom layer.

The process of formation of the oil wells are still happening today. But oil

wells are still young (less than 60 million years old) to form a saturated yet ready

to be drilled. In some cases, erosion and strong encouragement of the folds of

rocks cause leakage of hydrocarbons out of the cage. Some hydrocarbons are

moving towards the surface and can be harvested without drilling, but it took a

complicated processing to separate sand and other impurities.


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Seismic data and 3D visual modeling the main reference in the drilling

plan. After observation and survey conducted soil layer, then the evaluation phase

of oil wells have been completed and the stage of development can begin. At this

stage will be the construction of wells which include drilling, installation of

tubular, cementing, and production preparation. The series of special equipment

used to drill oil wells called rigs. The main characteristic of the rig is a tower

made of steel and is used to raise and lower the pipes tubular wells so that the

contents can be accessed wells.

The main component of the rig is a tower (derrick), pulpit base (floor),

drawworks, power source (drive), and medium mud (mud handing). To gain

access to the wells, then a segment of pipe (drill string) installed every 30 meters.

Put pressure on the pipe rotation and torque is obtained from hydraulic or

electrical stimulation generated at the top of the tower. Components of the drill bit(cone) contained in the bottom of the well is used for digging rocks. Types of

rocks excavated material will affect the drill bit and the type of material used. All

components are fully controlled by the drawworks. Exact calculation is necessary

for drawwork not damage the pipe and drill bit at the bottom of the well.


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Mud component serves to bring shale rock to the surface and cleans and

cools the drill bit at the bottom of the well. To prevent leakage of oil and gas, the

sludge must be able to give the equilibrium value of the pressure at the bottom of

the well. Oil and gas leak can cause an explosion situation (blow-out) and rig

equipment damage. Last prevention tool that is often used to prevent unwanted

situations explosion is underground safety valve mounted on the well pipe.

Usually the direction of drilling vertical wells dideviasi deliberately

towards the well. In modern drilling, the well is accessible 80o from the vertical

axis in order to more easily penetrated septum formation and flow more oil.

Drilling efficiency can also be done by making the branches of the pipe so that the

wells at different locations can be accessed by the same rig.


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The shape and structure of the rig tends to vary according to the type of

operation and function in the development stage. Rigs operating on the surface of

the water (offshore rigs) are classified based on the depth of the well is accessed.

The range of depths ranging from seven to thousands of feet in the deep sea. Tools

rig to drill ship put on a ship and is controlled using a computer as a very remote

area of operation, far from land, and is used to access the on-sea wells. The rig has

been successfully accessing the well will be given a protective outer (casing) and

cement so that the layer formation along the well remained isolated and axial

loads can wellbore

Mohs scale

Mohs scale of mineral hardness classify scratch resistance of various

minerals through the ability of a harder material to scratch a softer material. This

scale was created in 1812 by the geologist and mineralogist Friedrich Mohs

Germany and is one of several definitions of hardness in comparison violencematerial.Metode techniques to see which one is able to scratch the mineral other

minerals have long existed, was first mentioned by Theophrastus in his On The

rocks around the year 200 BC, followed by Pliny the Elder in Natural History

about 77 AD

mineral

Mohs scale of mineral hardness is based on the natural ability of the

sample material to scratch another material. The sample material used Mohs is all

minerals. Minerals are pure substances found in nature. Teruat rocks from one or

several mineral.as hardest natural substance that never existed when the scale is

made, the diamond is placed at the top of the scale. Material hardness is measured

against the scale by finding the hardest material that can scratch a soft material or

otherwise. For example, if some materials capable scratched by apatite but not by

fluorite, the hardness on the Mohs scale can occupy grades 4 and 5.


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Mohs scale is a purely ordinal scale. For example, corundum two times

harder than topaz, but diamond is almost four times harder than corundum. The

table below shows a comparison with absolute hardness measured using

Sclerometer with sample images.

Mohs

hardnessMineral Chemical formula

absolute

hardnessImage

1 Talek Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 1

2 Gipsum CaSO42H2O 3

3 Kalsit CaCO3 9

4 Fluorit CaF2 21

5 ApatitCa5(PO4)3(OH,Cl

,F)48

6 Feldspar Ortoklas KAlSi3O8 72
http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talekhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talekhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gipsumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gipsumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalsithttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalsithttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apatit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apatit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldspar_Ortoklashttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldspar_Ortoklashttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:OrthoclaseBresil.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Apatite_crystals.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Fluorite_with_Iron_Pyrite.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Calcite-sample2.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Gypse_Arignac.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Talc_block.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:OrthoclaseBresil.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Apatite_crystals.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Fluorite_with_Iron_Pyrite.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Calcite-sample2.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Gypse_Arignac.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Talc_block.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:OrthoclaseBresil.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Apatite_crystals.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Fluorite_with_Iron_Pyrite.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Calcite-sample2.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Gypse_Arignac.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Talc_block.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:OrthoclaseBresil.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Apatite_crystals.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Fluorite_with_Iron_Pyrite.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Calcite-sample2.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Gypse_Arignac.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Talc_block.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:OrthoclaseBresil.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Apatite_crystals.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Fluorite_with_Iron_Pyrite.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Calcite-sample2.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Gypse_Arignac.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Talc_block.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:OrthoclaseBresil.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Apatite_crystals.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Fluorite_with_Iron_Pyrite.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Calcite-sample2.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Gypse_Arignac.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Talc_block.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldspar_Ortoklashttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apatit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalsithttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gipsumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talek


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Mohs

hardness

Mineral Chemical formulaabsolute

hardness

Image

7 Kuarsa SiO2 100

8 Topaz Al2SiO4(OH

,F

)2 200

9 Korundum Al2O3 400

10 Intan C 1600

On the Mohs scale, graphite (the main part of the "lead" pencils) has

hardness of 1.5; Nail 2.2-2.5; copper coins from 3.2 to 3.5; 5.1 pocket knife; 5.5

blade body; 5.5 window glass; and 6.5 files. A plate line (non-glazed porcelain)

has a hardness of 7.0. The use of ordinary materials with hardness that has been

known to be a simple way to estimate the position of a mineral on this scale.

List of minerals

The table below lists the mineral and scale Mohsnya:
http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuarsahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuarsahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topazhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topazhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korundumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korundumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intanhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intanhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Rough_diamond.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Cut_Ruby.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Topaz_cut.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Quartz_Br%C3%A9sil.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Rough_diamond.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Cut_Ruby.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Topaz_cut.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Quartz_Br%C3%A9sil.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Rough_diamond.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Cut_Ruby.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Topaz_cut.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Quartz_Br%C3%A9sil.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Rough_diamond.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Cut_Ruby.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Topaz_cut.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkas:Quartz_Br%C3%A9sil.jpghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intanhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korundumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topazhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuarsa


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violence Substances or minerals

0.20.3 sesium,rubidium

0.50.6 litium,natrium,kalium

1 talk

1.5 galium,stronsium,indium,timah,barium,talium,timbal,grafit

2boron nitridaheksagonal,kalsium,selenium,kadmium,sulfur,telurium,

bismut

2.53 magnesium,emas,perak,aluminium,seng,lantanum,serium,jet(lignit)

3 kalsit,tembaga,arsenik,antimon,torium,dentin

4 fluorit,besi,nikel

44.5 platinum,baja

5apatit, kobal, zirkonium, paladium, tooth enamel, obsidian (kaca

vulkanik)

5.5 berilium,molibdenum,hafnium

6 ortoklas,titanium,mangan,germanium,niobium,rodium,uranium

67kaca, kuarsa gabungan,besi pirit, silikon, rutenium, iridium, tantalum,

opal

7 kuarsa,vanadium,osmium,renium

7.58 baja keras,tungsten,zamrud,spinel,Phenakite,beril,Euclase,zirkon
http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubidiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubidiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubidiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaliumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaliumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaliumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talkhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stronsiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stronsiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stronsiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bariumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bariumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bariumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbalhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbalhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbalhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grafithttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grafithttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grafithttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boron_nitrida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boron_nitrida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalsiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalsiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalsiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadmiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadmiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadmiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teluriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teluriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teluriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuthttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuthttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emashttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emashttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emashttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perakhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perakhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perakhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantanumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantanumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantanumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet_%28lignit%29&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet_%28lignit%29&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet_%28lignit%29&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalsithttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalsithttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembagahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembagahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembagahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenikhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenikhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenikhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimonhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimonhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimonhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentinhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentinhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentinhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besihttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besihttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besihttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikelhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikelhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikelhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bajahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bajahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bajahttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apatit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apatit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobalhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobalhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirkoniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirkoniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paladiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paladiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tooth_enamel&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tooth_enamel&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidianhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidianhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriliumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriliumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molibdenumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molibdenumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molibdenumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortoklashttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortoklashttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titaniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titaniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titaniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kacahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kacahttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kuarsa_gabungan&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kuarsa_gabungan&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Besi_pirit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Besi_pirit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silikonhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silikonhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruteniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruteniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opalhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opalhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuarsahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuarsahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baja_keras&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baja_keras&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungstenhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungstenhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungstenhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamrudhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamrudhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamrudhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spinel&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spinel&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spinel&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phenakite&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phenakite&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phenakite&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beril&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beril&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beril&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euclase&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euclase&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euclase&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirkonhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirkonhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirkonhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirkonhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euclase&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beril&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phenakite&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spinel&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamrudhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungstenhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baja_keras&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuarsahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opalhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruteniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silikonhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Besi_pirit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kuarsa_gabungan&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kacahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germaniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titaniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortoklashttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hafniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molibdenumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beriliumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obsidianhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tooth_enamel&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paladiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirkoniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobalhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apatit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bajahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikelhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besihttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentinhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimonhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenikhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tembagahttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalsithttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jet_%28lignit%29&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantanumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senghttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perakhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emashttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuthttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teluriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfurhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kadmiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleniumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalsiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boron_nitrida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grafithttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbalhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taliumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bariumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stronsiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talkhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaliumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natriumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubidiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesium


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8 topas,zirkonia kubik

8.5 krisoberil,kromium,Yttrium aluminium garnet(YAG)

99.5korundum(rubi,safir),silikon karbida (karborundum),tungsten karbida,

titanium karbida,stisovit

9.510 renium diborida,tantalum karbida,titanium diborida,boron

10 intan/berlian,karbonado(berlian hitam)

>10 intan nanokristalin(hiperintan, fulerit ultrakeras)

CHAPTER 1II

CLOSING

Conclusions

Geology is the science of the earth, about asl, structure, composition, and

history (including the development of life), as well as the processes that

led to the state of the Earth has slowed now ini.Dengan studied geology

we can know everything about the earth and its contents.

In the field of the introduction of the necessary tools and materials tools

and materials research data collectors who wish to be observed.

In earth-bedding consists of bedding, that each layer haskarakteristiktersendiri properties, khisusnya for layering palingdalam have

magmatic latin properties (liquid, gas, and incandescent) is called magma.

Divergent boundaries / constructive (divergent / constructive boundaries)

occurs when two plates move away from each other. Mid-oceanic ridge

and fracture zones (rifting) active is an example of divergent boundaries

Limit convergent / destructive (convergent / destructive boundaries)

occurs when two plates rub against each other approaches to form a
http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Topas&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Topas&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirkonia_kubikhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirkonia_kubikhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirkonia_kubikhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Krisoberil&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Krisoberil&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yttrium_aluminium_garnet&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yttrium_aluminium_garnet&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yttrium_aluminium_garnet&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korundumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korundumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubihttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubihttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubihttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safirhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safirhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safirhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silicon_carbide&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silicon_carbide&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silicon_carbide&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tungsten_karbida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tungsten_karbida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tungsten_karbida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Titanium_karbida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Titanium_karbida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stisovit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stisovit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stisovit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renium_diborida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renium_diborida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tantalum_karbida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tantalum_karbida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tantalum_karbida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Titanium_diborida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Titanium_diborida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Titanium_diborida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skala_Mohs#cite_note-11http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intanhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlianhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlianhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlianhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karbonado&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karbonado&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karbonado&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanorod_intan_agregat&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanorod_intan_agregat&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nanorod_intan_agregat&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karbonado&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlianhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intanhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skala_Mohs#cite_note-prl-13http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skala_Mohs#cite_note-11http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skala_Mohs#cite_note-11http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Titanium_diborida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tantalum_karbida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Renium_diborida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stisovit&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Titanium_karbida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tungsten_karbida&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silicon_carbide&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safirhttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubihttp://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korundumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yttrium_aluminium_garnet&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kromiumhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Krisoberil&action=edit&redlink=1http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirkonia_kubikhttp://id.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Topas&action=edit&redlink=1


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subduction zone when one plate moves under another, or continental

collision (continental collision) if the two plates contain continental crust.

Frozen rocks are rocks formed by the freezing of magma in the earth or

freezing lava on the surface of the earth.

Rock formed as a result of the destruction of the host rock lithifikasi.

Lithifikasi rocks include authigenic compaction and diagenesis processes

(process terubahnya loose materials into compact rock).

Sedimentary rock is very much kind and widespread in thickness from a

few centimeters to a few miles. In the lateral spread of sedimentary rocks

reaches 70% of the rocks on the surface but only sedimentary rocks is 5%

of the rocks at the earth.


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REFERENCES

http://kazekageadhey.blogspot.com/2012/03/makalah-geologi-dasar.html

Drs.Sriyanto .2004. Geologi umum.Semarang :UNNES.

Graha,Doody Stia. 1987.Batuan dan Mineral. Bandung:ITB Press.

Katili, JA dan P.Marks. 1960. Geologi. Jakarta:Dep. Urusan Research

Nasional.
http://kazekageadhey.blogspot.com/2012/03/makalah-geologi-dasar.htmlhttp://kazekageadhey.blogspot.com/2012/03/makalah-geologi-dasar.htmlhttp://kazekageadhey.blogspot.com/2012/03/makalah-geologi-dasar.html

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