Chapter 1

Pronoun

A. PENGERTIAN PRONOUN

Pronoun atau kata ganti adalah kata-kata yang digunakan untuk menggantikan orang atau benda. Ada 5 jenis kata ganti orang, yaitu yang berfungsi sebagai subject (Subject Pronouns), sebagai object (object pronoun), sebagai adjective (possessive adjectives), untuk menyatakan kepunyaan (possessive pronouns), dan untuk menyatakan refleksi diri (reflexive atau reciprocal pronouns). Pronoun umumnya menggantikan posisi noun yaitu sebagai subject, object ataupun complement. Jadi dapat menyimpulkan bahwa pronoun adalah kata ganti yang digunakan untuk menggantikan orang, hewan, dan benda.kata ganti dalam bahasa inggris(Pronouns) adalah kata-kata yang digunakan untuk menggantikan kata benda (nouns), kata benda ini dapat berupa manusia, hewan, tempat dan konsep abstrak.

Tujuan dari penggunaan pronoun bisa disebabkan oleh banyak hal seperti agar lebih singkat, sebuah nama tidak disebutkan berulang-ulang di dalam sebuah kalimat dan efektifitas sebuah kalimat.B. BENTUK-BENTUK PRONOUNPersonal, Possessive, Reflexive PronounsUntuk membedakan ketiganya perhatikan tabel di bawah ini:

Personal PronounsPossessive PronounsReflexive Pronouns

SubjectObjectPossessive AdjectivePossessive Pronouns

IMeMy MineMyself

YouYouYour YoursYourself

TheyThemTheir TheirsThemselves

WeUsOur OursOurselves

HeHimHis HisHimself

SheHerHer HersHerself

ItItIts ItsItself

1. Personal PronounAdalah Kata ganti orang atau bendah yang menempati posisi subject dan object. Pronoun Subject: Kata ganti yang menjadi subject (pokok kalimat) Pronoun Object: Kata ganti yang menjadi object.

2. Demonstrative Pronoun (Kata Ganti Penunjuk) This= ini (digunakan untuk benda dekat tunggal)

These= ini (digunakan untuk benda dekat jamak)

That= itu (digunakan untuk benda jauh tunggal)

Those= itu (digunakan untuk benda jauh jamak)3. Indefinite PronounsAdalah kata ganti yang digunakan untuk menggantikan orang atau benda dan quantity belum jelas. Each= setiap, tiap-tiap, masing-masing One atau Ones= yang lainnya, yang satu. Someone; Somebody; Somewhere; Anyone; Anybody; Anything; Something; AnywhereDalam hal inisomedigunakan dalam kalimat positif dananydigunakan dalam kalimat negatif Each other= satu sama lain, untuk 2 orang. One another= satu sama lain, untuk lebih dari 2 orang. Another= yang lain, untuk benda tunggal tak tentu. Others= yang lain, untuk benda jamak tak tentu. The other= yang lain, untuk benda tunggal tertentu. The others= yang lain, untuk benda jamak tertentu.

4. Interogative PronounsAdalah kata tanya yang digunakan sebagai pronoun, yaitu who, whom, what, dan which. Who= siapa (menanyakan orang sebagaisubject).

Whom= siapa (menanyakan orang sebagaiobject).

Whose= kepunyaan siapa

Which= yang mana

Where= dimana/ kemana

When= kapan

Why= mengapa/ kenapa

How= bagaimana, dengan apa

5. Reflexive PronounReflexive pronouns adalah kata ganti yang merupakan refleksi dari kata ganti (pronoun) itu sendiri. Kata-kata ganti ini mencakup myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, oursevels, yourselves, dan themselves. Kata-kata ini digunakan apabila subjek dan objek dalam sebuah kelimat merupakan orang yang sama.Contoh: I hitmyselfwith a stick Jack hitshimselfwith a hammerKalimat berikut tidak benar:

I hitmewith a stick

Jack hithimwith a stickTetapi perlu dingat, apabila subjek dan objek adalah orang yang berbeda, maka digunakan kata ganti benda/orang seperti biasa (me, he, se, it, us, dan them.

6. Possesive PronounAdalah kata ganti yang menunjukkan kepemilikan yang berasal dari personal pronoun.

Contoh:

This is your book. This book is yours.

Jack is my friend. Jack is a friend of mine.

7. Reciprocal PronounAdalah kata ganti yang menunjukkan hubungan saling berinteraksi.

Each other Saling untuk dua orang/benda

One another Saling untuk lebih dari dua orang atau benda.

8. Relative PronounAdalah kata ganti yang mengacu pada noun yang berada sebelum relative pronoun atau relative clauses (adjective clause). Relative Pronoun merupakan pronoun yang mengawali adjective clause/relative clause.

Who / whom Mengacu pada orang (person)

Which Mengacu pada benda (thing)

That Mengacu pada keduanya (person and thing)Contoh:Relative Pronoun as Subject Whats the name of the tall man who just came in? Its a book which will interest children of all ages. The people that live next door keep having all-night partiesRelative Pronoun as Object He has married somebody whom I really do not like. I gave him an envelope , which he put in his pocket at once. Here are the papers that you were looking for.

C. FUNGSI PRONOUN

Fungsipronoun: untuk menyebut sesuatu atau sesorang sebagai ganti kata benda yang sudah disebut dalam kalimat sebelumnya atau si pembicara dan pendengar sudah sama-sama mengetahui benda mana yang dimaksud. Bila tidak adapronounkita harus mengulang kata atau frase benda berkali-kali.

Contoh:Do you know the man over there? It seems the man is looking for something. Lets come near to the man. Perhaps we can help the man.Chapter 2Subject Verb AgreementA. BASIC SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENTSingular VerbPlural Verb

My friend lives in BostonMy friends live in BostonVerb + -s/-es = third person singular in the simple present tenseNoun + -s/-es = plural

That book on political parties is interestingThe ideas in that book are interestingA prepositional phrase that comes between a subject and verb does not affect the verb

My brother and sister live in BostonTwo (or more) subjects connected by and take a plural verb

Every man,woman, and child needs love

Each book and magazine is listed in the card catalogEXCEPTION: Every and each are always followed immediately by singular nouns. In this case even when there are two (or more) nouns connected by and, the verb is singular

Growing flowers is her hobbyA gerund used as the subject of a sentence takes a singular verb

B. SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

USING EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY

Singular VerbPlural Verb

(a) Some of the book is good

A lot of the equipment is new

Two-thirds of the money is mine(b) Some of the books are good

A lot of my friends are here

Two-thirds of the pannies are mineThe verb is determined by the noun (or pronoun) that follows of in most expression of quantity. Notice in (a) and (b):

Some of + singular noun + singular verb

Some of + plural noun + plural verb

One of my friends is hereEach of my friends is here

Every one of my friends is hereEXCEPTION: One of, Each of, and every one of take singular verbs.One of

Each of + plural noun + singular verbEvery one of

None of the boys is hereNone of the boys are here.(informal)Subjects with none of are considered singular in very formal english, but plural verbs are often used in informal speech and writing

(i) The number of students in the class(m) The number of students were late for classCOMPARE: In (i): The number is the subject. In (m): A number of is an expression of quantity meaning a lot of. It is followed by a plural noun and plural verb.

C. SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT

USING THERE + BE

SINGULAR VERBPLURAL VERB

(a) There is a book on the shelf(b) There are some books on the shelfThe subject follows be when there is used.*In (a): The subject is book

In (b): The subject is books

* in the structure there+be, there is called an expletiveChapter 3Parallel Structure

One use of a conjunction is to connect words or phrases that have the same grammatical function in a sentence. This use of conjunctions is called parallel structure. The conjunctions used in this pattern are: and, but, or, nor.

(a) Steve and his friend are coming to dinner

(b) Susan raised her hand and snapped her fingers

(c) He is waving his arms and (is) shouting at us(d) These shoes are old but comfortable

(e) He wants to watch TV or (to) listen to some musicIn (a): noun + and + nounIn (b): verb + and + verb

In (c): verb + and + verb (The second aux. may be omitted if it is the same as the first aux.)

In (d): adjective + but + adjective

In (c): infinitive + and + infinitive (The second to may be omitted)

(f) Steve, Joe, and Alice are coming to dinner

(g) Susan raised her hand, snapped her fingers, and ask question

(h) The colors in that fabric are red, gold, black and greenA parallel structure may contain more than two parts. In series, commas are used to separate each unit. The final comma that precedes the conjuction is optional but is customarily used. (No commas are used if there are only two parts to a parallel structure)

Chapter 4Passive

A. FORMING THE PASSIVE

ACTIVE: (a) Mary helped the boy

s v o

PASSIVE : (b) The boy was helped by Mary

s v Form of the passive: be + past participle

In the passive, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb: the boy in (a) becomes the subject of the passive verb in (b). (a) and (b) have the same meaning

ACTIVE: (c) An accident happened

PASSIVE: (d) (none)Only transitive verbs (verbs that are followed by an object) are used in the passive. It is not possible to use verbs such as happen, sleep, come and seem (intransitive verbs) in the passive

ACTIVEPASSIVE

Simple Present

Present progresive

Present perfect

Simple past

Past progresive

Past perfect

Simple future

Be going to

Future perfectMary helps John

Mary is helping John

Mary has helped John

Mary helped John

Mary was helping John

Mary was helped John

Mary will help John

Mary is going to help John

Mary will have helped JohnMary is helped John

Mary is being helped John

Mary has been helped John

Mary was helped John

Mary was being helped John

Mary had been helped John

Mary will be helped John

Mary is going to helped John

Mary will have been helped John

Chapter 5Modal

1. Modal untuk mengekspresikan kemampuanKetika kita akan membuat kalimat yang akan mengekspresikan kemampuan seseorang kita dapat menggunakan kata: Can dan Could. Can digunakan untuk mengekspresikan kemampuan yang ada di masa sekarang atau masa yang akan datang. Pattern: Subject + Can + Verb 1 + ObjectContoh:- Bob can play the piano.- You can buy a screwdriver at a hardware store.

Kalimat tersebut juga dapat dibuat bentuk negatifnya sehingga menjadi:

Subject + Cant + Verb 1 + Object

Contoh:I cant understand that sentence.

Jadi jika dibuat bentuk negatif artinya menjadi tidak bisa. Selain menggunakan can kita juga dapat menggunakan could untuk mengekspresikan kemampuan. Namun could hanya digunakan untuk mengekspresikan kemampuan di masa yang lampau.

Pattern: Subject + Could + Verb 1 + Object

Contoh:- She could dance beautifully.

Kalimat di atas juga dapat dibuat menjadi kalimat negatif. Sehingga nanti artinya adalah tidak bisa. Pattern: Subject + Couldnt + Verb 1 + ObjectContoh:I couldnt drive a car.2. Modal untuk mengekspresikan kemungkinanKetika kita akan mengekspresikan kemungkinan di dalam bahasa Inggris, kita dapat menggunakan kata may dan might. Keduanya memiliki arti yang sama yaitu mungkin dan digunakan untuk mengekspresikan kemungkinan di masa sekarang atau masa yang akan datang. Pattern:

Subject + May/Might + Verb 1 + ObjectContoh:- It may rain tomorrow.- He might be sick today.

Kalimat di atas juga dapat dibuat bentuk negatifnya. Sehingga artinya menjadi tidak mungkin. Pattern:Subject + May/Might + not + Verb 1 + ObjectContoh:- Mother might not cook soup today.- I may not bring novel tomorrow.

Selain itu kita juga dapat menggunakan maybe. Namun maybe di sini bukanlah kata bantu seperti may dan might, jadi maybe dapat berdiri sendiri. Contohnya ada dalam kalimat:

- Maybe we will go shopping.

Artinya adalah sama yaitu mungkin. Namun maybe dapat berdiri sendiri tidak perlu menambahkan kata kerja di belakangnya.

3. Modal untuk mengekspresikan izinKetika kita akan mengekspresikan izin di dalam bahasa Inggris kita dapat menggunakan kata may. Jadi may selain digunakan untuk mengekspresikan kemungkinan juga dapat mengekspresikan izin. Selain may kita juga dapat menggunakan kata can.

Pattern: Subject + May/Can + Verb 1 + ObjectContoh:- Children may have a cookie after dinner.- You can go to the party.

Kalimat di atas juga dapat dibuat bentuk negatifnya. Nanti artinya menjadi tidak diizinkan. Pattern: Subject + May/Can + Not + Verb 1 + ObjectContoh:- You may not attend the concert.

4. Modal untuk meminta bantuanKetika kita akan meminta bantuan kepada orang lain, kita dapat menggunakan beberapa modal seperti: would, could, will, dan can. Perbedaan di antara keempatnya adalah tingkat kesopanannya. Would adalah yang paling sopan dan formal di antara yang lain. Sedangkan can digunakan untuk situasi non formal. Cara meminta pertolongan dengan menggunakan modal tersebut adalah:

Would + You + Verb 1 + Object?Could + You + Verb 1 + Object?Will + You + Verb 1 + Object?Can + You + Verb 1 + Object?Contoh:- Can you open the door?- Would you please pass the salt?

5. Modal untuk mengekspresikan nasihatKetika kita akan memberikan nasihat dalam bahasa Inggris, kita dapat menggunakan beberapa bantuan modal seperti: should, ought to, dan had better. Tidak ada perbedaan di antara ketiga kata kerja bantu tersebut. Semuanya memiliki arti yang sama yaitu ini adalah saran yang baik. Cara menggunakan modal tersebut di dalam kalimat adalah:

Subject + Should + Verb 1 + ObjectSubject + Ought to + verb 1 + ObjectSubject + Had better + Verb 1 + ObjectContoh:- My clothes are dirty. I should wash them.- I am bad at math. I ought to take math course.

Kalimat di atas juga dapat dibuat bentuk negatifnya. Sehingga artinya menjadi tidak disarankan. Formulanya adalah:

Subject + Should + Not + Verb 1 + ObjectSubject + Ought + Not + to + verb 1 + ObjectSubject + Had better + Not + Verb 1 + ObjectContoh:- I must wake up early so I should not stay up late.- There will be eaxam tomorrow. I had better not watch TV.

Chapter 6Degrees Of Comparison

SIMILARITYas____as____

COMPARATIVE (adj/adverb) /-er/ THANfor 1 sylable

/more-/ (adj/adverb) THANfor >1 sylable

SUPERLATIVE /the___-est/

for 1 sylable

/the most-/

for >1 sylable

Chapter 7Causative

Causative

Asking someone to do something (Menyuruh sseorang melakukan sesuatu)

Have, make, let, get, order, ask digunakan untuk menyuruh seseorang

PATTERNUntuk object orangactive

Subject + Have / has / had

Make /Makes / Made + Object (org) + Verb I

Let / Lets / LetSubject + Get / gets / got

Order / Orders / Ordered + Object (org) + to +Verb I

Ask / Asks / AskedpassiveGet / gets / got + Object (benda) + Verb III + By + Object (org)

Order / Orders / Ordered

Ask / Asks / Asked

Chapter 8Because

Because/ Because ofBecause selalu diikuti dengan kalimat lengkap (harus ada Verb nya) .because of hanya diikuti sebuah kata benda (noun) atau noun phrase.(tidak boleh ada konjugasi/penghubung antara because of dengan noun .

Pattern:

because + Subject + Verb .ex :

He was frustrated because the mucked was up windscreen.

because of + noun (noun phrase) .ex:

He was frustrated because of the mucked up windscreen (noun phrase).He was frustrated because the mucked was up windscreen.

Chapter 9EnoughPATTERN

Adjective + Enough

Enough + NounEXAMPLE

Beautiful Enough

Enough Money

Chapter 10Subjunctive

Wish

Simple past, fact: Simple present

Subject(1) +If only

+ Subject(2)

(V2 + object)

As if/as though

past perfect, fact: Simple past

Would rather

(had + V3 + object)Example:

I wish i got the best score in chemistry

Fact: i dont get the best score in chemistryChapter 11Used To

USED TO

Digunakan untuk menyatakan kebiasaan di masa laluGet / to be + Used to + V-ing

Used to + VIExample :

I get used to doing homework

I am used to doing homework

They used to live in California

She used to bring a bag wherever she goes

Chapter 12If conditional

A. Type 1 -> true (now/future)

PatternIf + Simple present, simple futureIf + S + Verb es/-s + O, S + will + V1 + O

Example:

If the sun stop rising, there will be no living creature

If i feel hungry, i will eat something

B. Type 2 -> untrue (present)

Pattern

If + Simple past, Past future

If + S + V2 + O, S + would + V1 + O

Example:

I would ask to take a picture if the member of JKT 48 were here

If i had much money, i would treat you

C. Type 3 -> untrue (past)Pattern

If + Past perfect, Past future perfect

If + S + had + V2 + O, S + would have+ V3 + O

Example:

I would have studied in USA if I had been a president

What would your mom have said you had gone home so late?

( English Summary 12