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countries where governments and societies are unstable, as they are

in many iddle astern nations and 2arur.

Cultural Confict can lead to a divided world in which conficts are

promoted, though those ghting them may not even %now or

understand the root cause o the confict. "his can lead to heightened

tensions, discrimination and even violence in places where Cultural

Confictleads to distrust and ear. "his %ind o violent confict occurs all

over the world, rom the iddle ast to 3outh America.

As suggested by ichelle 6e5ron, a law proessor at the

7niversity o 5ritish Columbia, cultural fuency is %ey to understanding

those who are dierent rom us and preventing or settling cross$

cultural confict. "hrough cultural fuency, one becomes educated and

more understanding o the complexities involved in other cultures.

8ndividuals must become amiliar, and thereore more comortable,

with other cultures. "his heightened awareness should humani&e other

cultures and lead to greater communication, peaceul interaction and

cross$cultural understanding.

5ased on those explanations, the writer is really motivated to

discuss about cultural confict in which the writer hopes that it willhelp the reader to be able to understand the diversity in many

cultures and learn how to adapt with in order to prevent the occurring

o any conficts which will not give any benets to anyone.

1.. Rea!on of Choo!"ng To#"c

"here are a lot o confict which can occurs in our daily lie that is

caused by the dierence o our culture or sometimes, even we come

rom the same cultural bac%ground, we still can ace some conficts

occur in our daily lie. 8n order to prevent the small conficts that may

occur in our daily lie, it becomes an important thing or us to learn

about cultural confict, the %inds o it, the reason that ma%es it

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happens and how to overcome it. "hose are the reason why the writer

is really motivated to discuss about cultural confict.

1.$. %"&"tat"on of the Study

"he writers have limited the paper to the discussion about the cultural

confict which occurs in intercultural communication.

1.'. Re!earch Pro()e&

"he problems that the writer would li%e to observe in her study are :

-. ;hat %inds o confict that can occur by intercultural

communication


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"he writers conducted choose descriptive method as it is

commonly used to investigate problems that occur at present time.

1.. Organ"/at"on of the Pa#er

"he primary contents o the paper are as ollows:

Chapter 8 is introduction.

"he writer has tried to introduce the problem as clearly as

possible. 8t consists o : bac%ground o the problem, reason or

choosing topic, limitation the study, research problem, hypothesis, aim

o the study, population and samples o the research, method and

procedure o the research , organi&ation o the paper and clarication

o terms.

Chapter 88 is 2iscussion.

8n this part the writers have tried to review some related

literatures and theories proposed by some experts to support the

paper and gave a vivid discussion about the title o this paper.

Chapter 888 is conclusion and interpretation.

8n this chapter the writers give the conclusion and suggestion o

the paper

BAB II

DISCUSSION

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.1 Co&&un"cat"on and Cu)ture8ntercultural communication is a orm o global communication. 8t

is used to describe the wide range o communication problems that

naturally appear within an organi&ation made up o individuals rom

dierent religious, social, ethnic, and educational bac%grounds.

8ntercultural communication is sometimes

used synonymouslywith cross$cultural communication. 8n this sense it

see%s to understand how people rom dierent countries

and culturesact, communicateand perceivethe world around them.

As a separate notion, it studies situations where people rom dierent

cultural bac%grounds interact. Aside rom language, intercultural

communication ocuses on social attributes, thought patterns, and thecultures o dierent groups o people. 8t also involves understanding

the dierent cultures, languages and customs o people rom other

countries. 8ntercultural communication plays a role in anthropology,

cultural studies, linguistics, psychologyand communication studies.

8ntercultural communication is also reerred to as the base or

international businesses. "here are several cross cultural service

providers around who can assist with the development o intercultural

communication s%ills. )esearch is a maor part o the development o

intercultural communication s%ills.5esides the denition above, intercultural communication also

can be simply dened as the communication between members o

dierent culture. "his denition is surely simple but the process is

complex. ;hy do 8 say that < 8t is caused by the intercultural

communication involves diering perceptions, attitude, and

interpretations. ;e %now that even two people come rom the sameculture also can have communication problem. *eople can

unintentionally hurt each other by something they say or do.Cultures itsel do not communicate@ the one who communicate is

individuals who belong the culture. veryone has a uni+ue style o

communication, but cultures determine a general style or their
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonymhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonymhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_studies


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members. "he relationship between individuals and hisher culture is

analogous to an actoractress and hisher director. "he actoractress

puts his own personality into his acting but is nevertheless infuenced

by the director. ;e are not always aware o the subtle infuences o

our culture. 6i%ewise, we may not perceive that others are infuenced

by their cultures as well.

. -"!"nter#retat"on!

3ocial conficts oten involve some misinterpretation. *roblems

and misinterpretations do not result every time members rom two

cultures communicate. Bowever, when cultural conficts do arise,

they may be perceived as personal rather than cultural. Confict

parties communicate by what they say 1or do not say4 and how they

behave toward one another. ven normal interaction may involve

aulty communication, but confict seems to worsen the problem. "he

higher the level o confict, the more costly misunderstandings may

be. 2uring the Cold ;ar, miscommunication between 7.3. and 3oviet

leaders could have been catastrophic in its conse+uences. At every

stage and level o confict, clear communication among partiesusually wor%s to reduce unwise decisions by and costs or the

participants.

All communication has two parts: a sender and a receiver. "he

sender has a message he or she intends to transmit, and she puts it

in words which, to her, best refect what she is thin%ing. 5ut many

things can intervene to prevent the intended message rom being

received.

8 the communication is verbal, tone o voice can infuence

interpretation. "he bosses' words hey, 8 noticed you were ta%ing an

especially long brea% this morning, could be interpreted as an attac%

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i he said that in a disapproving tone@ while the comment might be

seen as a minor reminder about o#ce rules, i it was said in a riendly

way. 8 the employee had a problem re+uiring the long brea%, the

comment might have even been a riendly in+uiry about what has

happening and whether the employee needed any help. Bere, tone o

voice as well as situational and relationship actors would infuence

the interpretation o the message.

Eonverbal cues also are important. 8s the sender's posture

open and riendly, or closed and cold< 8s her acial expression riendly

or accusatory< All o these actors infuence how the same words will

be received.

8n addition to how the message is sent, many additional

actors determine how the message is interpreted by the receiver. All

new inormation we learn is compared with the %nowledge we already

have. 8 it conrms what we already %now, we will li%ely receive the

new inormation accurately, though we may pay little attention to it.

8 it disputes our previous assumptions or interpretation o the

situation, we may distort it in our mind so that it is made to t our

world view, or we may dismiss the inormation as deceptive,

misguided, or simply wrong.

8 the message is ambiguous, the receiver is especially li%ely to

clariy it or hersel in a way which corresponds with her expectations.

(or example, i two people are involved in an escalated confict, and

they each assume that the other is going to be aggressive and

hostile, then any ambiguous message will be interpreted as

aggressive and hostile, even i it was not intended to be that way at

all. !ur expectations wor% as blinders or lters that distort what we

see so that it ts our preconceived images o the world.

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An analogy can be made to the science experiment done to

test people's interpretation o visual cues. ;hen people were given

eye$glasses which turned the world upside down, they had to suer

through with upside down images or a wee% or two. 5ut ater that,

their brains learned to turn the images bac% over again, so they were

seeing things right side up. "he same thing happens when we hear

something we %now is wrong. !ur brain xes it.

Given our tendency to hear what we expect to hear, it is very

easy or people in confict to misunderstand each other.

Communication is already li%ely to be strained, and people will, most

li%ely, want to hide the truth to some extent. "hus the potential ormisperceptions and misunderstandings is high, which can ma%e

confict management or resolution more di#cult.

.$ Ethnocentr"!&!2i#culties in intercultural communication arise when there is

little or no awareness o divergent cultural values and belies. 8n

cross$cultural interaction, spea%ers sometime assume that what they

believe is right, because they have grown up thin%ing their way is thebest. "his problem can be dened as ethnocentrisms.

thnocentrisms itsel can be clearly denes as the tendency to

believe that one's ethnic or cultural group is centrally important, and

that all other groups are measured in relation to one's own. "he

ethnocentric individual will udge other groups relative to his or her

own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern

to language, behavior, customs, and religion. "hese ethnic

distinctions and sub$divisions serve to dene each ethnicity's

uni+uecultural identity. "he ethnocentric assumption can result in

negative udgements about other cultures."he term ethnocentrism was coined by ;illiam G. 3umner, upon

observing the tendency or people to dierentiate between the in

0
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groupand others. Be dened it as the technical name or the view o

things in which one's own group is the center o everything, and all

others are scaled and rated with reerence to it. Be urther

characteri&ed it as oten leading to pride, vanity, belies o one's own

group's superiority, and contempt o outsiders. )obert H.

ertoncomments that 3umner's additional characteri&ation robbed

the concept o some analytical power because, erton argues,

centrality and superiority are oten correlated, but need to be %ept

analytically distinct.

Anthropologistssuch as (ran& 5oasand 5ronis law

alinows%iargued that any human science had to transcend the

ethnocentrism o the scientist. 5oth urged anthropologists toconduct ethnographiceldwor%in order to overcome their

ethnocentrism. 5oas developed the principle o cultural

relativismand alinows%i developed the theory o unctionalismas

guides or producing non$ethnocentric studies o dierent cultures.

"he boo%s The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia,

by alinows%i, Patterns of Cultureby )uth 5enedictand Coming of

Age in Samoaby argaret ead1two o 5oas's students4 are classic

examples o anti$ethnocentric anthropology.*eople who are born into a particular culture and grow up

absorbing the values and behaviors o the culture will develop

patterns o thought refecting the culture as normal. 8 people then

experience other cultures that have dierent values and normal

behaviors, they will nd that the thought patterns appropriate to their

birth culture and the meanings their birth culture attaches to

behaviors are not appropriate or the new cultures. Bowever, sincepeople are accustomed to their birth culture, it can be di#cult or

them to see the behaviors o people rom a dierent culture rom the

viewpoint o that culture rather than rom their own.xamples o ethnocentrism include religiously patterned

constructs claiming a divineassociation li%e divine nation, !neI
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Eation under God, God's !wn Country, God's Chosen *eople and

God's *romised 6and.8n Precarious Life,Judith 5utlerdiscusses recogni&ing the !ther

in order to sustain the 3el and the problems o not being able to

identiy the !ther. 5utler notes 'that identication always relies upon

a dierence that it see%s to overcome, and that its aim is

accomplished only by reintroducing the dierence it claims to have

van+uished. "he one with whom 8 identiy is not me, and that 'not

being me' is the condition o the identication. !therwise, as

Jac+ueline )ose reminds us, 'identication collapses into identity,

which spells the death o identication itsel' 1-?D4. Bowever, 5utler's

understanding o 3el and !ther is urocentricitsel because shewrites that one cannot recogni&e 3el unless it is through the !ther.

"hereore, 3el and !ther are limited through a language o binary

codes. Considering that language is essential to culture, individuals

will %now themselves through the result o language plus culture.

2ichotomous language is embedded in nglish and similar languages@

however, dichotomous language is not universal. 8ndeed, there are

ew dichotomies in many 8ndigenous and non$uropean languages

15attiste and Benderson FD4. 8t is by loo%ing into the language o a

culture that one will be able to see onesel in relation to one's

environment and one's place in the world.

.' Stereoty#e!A. De0n"t"on

A stereotype is a popular belie about specic social

groups or types o individuals. "he concepts o stereotype and

preudice are oten conused with many other dierentmeanings. 3tereotypes are standardi&ed and simplied

conceptions o groups based on some prior assumptions.B. Ety&o)ogy

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"he term stereotypederives rom the Gree%words

KLMNMOP 1stereos4, rm, solid and LQRSP 1typos4, impression,

hence solid impression.8t was invented by (irmin 2idotin the world o printing@ it

was originally a duplicate impression o an

original typographicalelement, used or printing instead o the

original. American ournalist ;alter 6ippmanncoined the

metaphor, calling a stereotype a picture in our heads saying,

;hether right or wrong 1...4 imagination is shaped by the pictures

seen 1...4 originally printers' words, and in their literal printers'

meanings were synonymous. 3pecically, clichTwas a (rench word

or the printing surace or a stereotype.

"he rst reerence tostereotype, in its modern, nglish use was in -0/, in the noun,

meaning image perpetuated without change."he term, in its modern psychology sense, was rst used

by ;alter 6ippmann in his -I99 wor% Public pinionalthough in

the printing senseit was rst coined in -FI0.

C. Dyna&"c!8n one perspective o the stereotyping process, there are

the concepts o ingroups and outgroups. (rom each individual's

perspective, ingroups are viewed as normal and superior, and are

generally the group that they already associate with, or aspire to

oin. An outgroup is simply all the other groups. "hey are seen as

lesser than or inerior to the in$groups. An example o this would

be: Asians are smarter than Americans. 8n this example Asians are

loo%ed at as being smarter because their education systems are

more strict than that o the Americans.A second perspective is that o automatic and explicit or

subconscious and conscious. Automatic or subconscious

stereotyping is that which everyone does without noticing.

Automatic stereotyping is +uic%ly preceded by an explicit or

conscious chec% which permits time or any needed corrections.--
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%8C%CF%82http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%84%CF%8D%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%82http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmin_Didothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typographichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Lippmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clich%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Opinionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype_(printing)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%8C%CF%82http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%84%CF%8D%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%82http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmin_Didothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typographichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Lippmannhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clich%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Opinionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype_(printing)


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Automatic stereotyping is aected by explicit stereotyping

because re+uent conscious thoughts will +uic%ly develop into

subconscious stereotypes.A third method to categori&ing stereotypes is general

types and sub$types. 3tereotypes consist o hierarchical systems

consisting o broad and specic groups being the general types

and sub$types respectively. A general type could be dened as a

broad stereotype typically %nown among many people and usually

widely accepted, whereas the sub$group would be one o the

several groups ma%ing up the general group. "hese would be more

specic, and opinions o these groups would vary according to

diering perspectives.Certain circumstances can aect the way an individual

stereotypes. 3ome theorists argue in avor o the conceptual

connection and that one's own subective thought about someone

is su#cient inormation to ma%e assumptions about that

individual. !ther theorists argue that at minimum there must be a

casual connection between mental states and behavior to ma%e

assumptions or stereotypes. "hus results and opinions may vary

according to circumstance and theory. An example o a common,

incorrect assumption is that o assuming certain internal

characteristics based on external appearance. "he explanation or

one's actions is his or her internal state 1goals, eeling, personality,

traits, motives, values, and impulses4, not his or her appearance.3ociologist Charles . Burst, !ne reason or stereotypes

is the lac% o personal, concrete amiliarity that individuals have

with persons in other racial or ethnic groups. 6ac% o amiliarity

encourages the lumping together o un%nown individuals.3tereotypes ocus upon and thereby exaggerate

dierences between groups. Competition between groups

minimi&es similarities and magnies dierences. "his ma%es it

seem as i groups are very dierent when in act they may be

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more ali%e than dierent. (or example, among Arican Americans,

identity as an American citi&en is more salient than racial

bac%ground@ that is, Arican Americans are more American than

Arican

D. Theories on stereotypes2ierent disciplines give dierent accounts o how

stereotypes develop: *sychologists may ocus on an individual's

experience with groups, patterns o communication about those

groups, and intergroup confict. *ioneering psychologist ;illiam

James cautioned psychologists themselves to be wary o their own

stereotyping, in what he called the psychologist's allacy.

3ociologists ocus on the relations among dierent groups in a

social structure. *sychoanalytically$oriented humanists 1e.g.,

3ander Gilman4 have argued that stereotypes, by !e"nition, are

representations that are not accurate, but a proection o one to

another.A number o theories have been derived rom sociological

studies o stereotyping and preudicial thin%ing. 8n early studies it

was believed that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed,

and authoritarian people. 3ociologists concluded that this was a

result o confict, poor parenting, and inade+uate mental and

emotional development. "his idea has been overturned@ more

recent studies have concluded that stereotypes are commonplace.!ne theory as to why people stereotype is that it is too

di#cult to ta%e in all o the complexities o other people as

individuals. ven though stereotyping is inexact, it is an e#cient

way to mentally organi&e large bloc%s o inormation.Categori&ation is an essential human capability because it enables

us to simpliy, predict, and organi&e our world. !nce one has

sorted and organi&ed everyone into tidy categories, there is a

human tendency to avoid processing new or unexpected

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others. "hey believe that there is an 'innate ability bias'. "hese

eects are not ust limited to minority groups. athematically

competent white males, mostly math and engineering students,

were as%ed to ta%e a di#cult math test. !ne group was told that

this was being done to determine why Asians were scoring better.

"his group perormed signicantly worse than the control group.*ossible preudicial eects o stereotypes are:

-. Justication o ill$ounded preudices or ignorance

9. 7nwillingness to rethin% one's attitudes and behavior towards

stereotyped group

>. *reventing some people o stereotyped groups rom entering

or succeeding in activities or elds

3tereotypes allow individuals to ma%e better inormed

evaluations o individuals about whom they possess little or no

individuating inormation, and in many, but not all circumstances

stereotyping helps individuals arrive at more accurate conclusions.

!ver time, some victims o negative stereotypes display sel$

ullling prophecy behavior, in which they assume that the

stereotype represents norms to emulate. Eegative eects may

include orming inaccurate opinions o people, scapegoating,

erroneously udgmentalism, preventing emotional identication,

distress, and impaired perormance.

Xet, the stereotype that stereotypes are inaccurate,

resistant to change, overgenerali&ed, exaggerated, and

destructive is not ounded on empirical social science research,

which instead shows that stereotypes are oten accurate and that

people do not rely on stereotypes when relevant personal

inormation is available. 8ndeed, Jussim et al. comment that ethnic

and gender stereotypes are surprisingly accurate, while

stereotypes concerning political a#liation and nationality are

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much less accurate@ the stereotypes assessed or accuracy

concerned intelligence, behavior, personality, and economic

status. 3tereotype accuracy is a growing area o study and

orXueh$"ing 6eeand his colleagues they have created an *A

odel 1valuation, *otency, Accuracy4 to describe the continuously

changing variables o stereotypes.

. Role in Art and Culture

3tereotypes are common in various cultural media, where

they ta%e the orm o dramatic stoc% characters. "hese characters

are ound in the wor%s o playwright 5ertold 5recht, 2ario (o,

andJac+ues 6eco+, who characteri&e their actors as stereotypesor theatrical eect. 8ncommedia dell'artethis is similarly common.

"he instantly recogni&able nature o stereotypes mean that they

are eective in advertisingand situation comedy. "hese

stereotypes change, and in modern times only a ew o the

stereotyped characters shown inJohn 5unyan's The Pilgrim#s

Progresswould be recogni&able.

8n literatureand art, stereotypes are clichTdor predictablecharacters or situations. "hroughout history, storytellers have

drawn rom stereotypical characters and situations, in order to

connect the audience with new tales immediately. 3ometimes

such stereotypes can be sophisticated, such

as 3ha%espeare's 3hyloc%in The Merchant of $enice. Arguably a

stereotype that becomes complex and sophisticated ceases to be

a stereotypeper seby its uni+ue characteri&ation. "hus while

3hyloc% remains politically unstable in being a stereotypicalJew,

the subect o preudicialderision in 3ha%espeare's era, his many

other detailed eatures raise him above a simple stereotype and

into a uni+ue character, worthy o modern perormance. 3imply

-D
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yueh-Ting_Leehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_(communication)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_characterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertold_Brechthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Fohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Lecoqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commedia_dell'artehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situation_comedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bunyanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pilgrim's_Progresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pilgrim's_Progresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clich%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespearehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shylockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prejudicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yueh-Ting_Leehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_(communication)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_characterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertold_Brechthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dario_Fohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Lecoqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commedia_dell'artehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertisinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situation_comedyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bunyanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pilgrim's_Progresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pilgrim's_Progresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clich%C3%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespearehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shylockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prejudice


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because one eature o a character can be categori&ed as being

typical does not ma%e the entire character a stereotype.

2espite their proximity in etymological roots, clichT and

stereotype are not used synonymously in cultural spheres. (orexample a clichT is a high criticism in narrotology where genre

and categori&ation automatically associates a story within its

recogni&able group. 6abeling a situation or character in a story

as typicalsuggests it is tting or its genre or category. ;hereas

declaring that a storyteller has relied on clichT is to peoratively

observe a simplicity and lac% o originality in the tale. "o

critici&e 8an (lemingor a stereotypicallyunli%ely escape orJames

5ondwould be understood by the reader or listener, but it would

be more appropriately critici&ed as a clichT in that it is overused

and reproduced. Earrativegenre relies heavily on typicaleatures

to remain recogni&able and generate meaning in the

readerviewer.

8n movies and "Y the halo eectis oten used. "his is

when, or example, attractive men and women are assumed to be

happier, stronger, nicer people .

.* Pre2ud"ceA. De0n"t"on

*reudice 1or oredeeming4 is ma%ing a udgment or

assumption about someone or something beore having enough

%nowledge to be able to do so with guaranteed accuracy, or

udging a boo% by its cover. "he wordpre%u!iceis most oten

used to reer to preconceived udgments toward people or a personbecause o race, social

class,ethnicity, age, disability, obesity, religion, sexual orientation,

or other personal characteristics. 8t also means belies without

-F
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Fleminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effecthttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/foredeemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnicityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ageinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_orientationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Fleminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_effecthttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/foredeemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_classhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnicityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ageinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_orientation


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%nowledge o the actsand may include any unreasonable attitude

that is unusually resistant to rational infuence.

B. H"!tor"ca) A##roache!

"he rst psychological research conducted on preudiceoccurred in the -I9/s. "his research was done to attempt to

prove white supremacy. !ne article rom -I9 reviewing F> studies

on race concluded that the Zstudies ta%e all together seem to

indicate the mental superiority o the white race[."his research

among others led many psychologists to view preudice as a

natural response to inerior races.

8n the -I>/s and -I?/s, this perspective began to change

due to the increasing concern aboutanti$3emitism. "heorists o this

time viewed preudice as pathological and loo%ed or personality

syndromes lin%ed with racism. "heorist"heodor Adornobelieved

preudice stemmed rom an authoritarian personality. Adorno

described authoritarians as Zrigid thin%ers who obeyed authority,

saw the world as blac% and white, and enorced strict adherence to

social rules and hierarchies[. Adorno believed people withauthoritarian personalities were the most li%ely to be preudiced

against groups o lower status.

8n -I?, Gordon Allportlin%ed preudice and categorical

thin%ing. Allport claims preudice is in part a normal process or

humans. According to him, Z"he human mind must thin% with the

aid o categories\!nce ormed, categories are the basis or normal

preudgment. ;e cannot possibly avoid this process. !rderly livingdepends upon it[.

8n the -IF/s, research began to show that much o

preudice is based not on negative eelings towards other groups

but avoritism towards one=s own groups. According to arilyn

-0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_supremacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Semitismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Adornohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Allporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_supremacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-Semitismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Adornohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Allport


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5rewer, preudice Zmay develop not because outgroups are hated,

but because positive emotions such as admiration, sympathy, and

trust are reserved or the ingroup[.

8n -IFI, "homas *ettigrew described the ultimateattribution errorand its role in preudice. "he ultimate attribution

error occurs when ingroup members Z1-4 attribute negative

outgroup behavior to dispositional causes 1more than they would

or identical ingroup behavior4, and 194 attribute positive outgroup

behavior to one or more o the ollowing causes: 1a4 a fu%e or

exceptional case, 1b4 luc% or special advantage, 1c4 high motivation

and eort, and 1d4 situational actors[.

C. Conteorary Theor"e! and E"r"ca) "nd"ng!

3ocial psychologistBenri "aelound that preudices can

be witnessed in even randomly$created groups, called the minimal

group paradigm. 8n his minimal group experiments, "ael ound

that when strangers were assigned into groups based on something

trivial such as a coin toss, participants exhibited in$group and out$

group biases, giving preerential treatment to in$group membersand acting more hostile toward out$group members.

"he out$group homogeneity biasis the perception that

members o an out$group are more similar 1homogenous4 than

members o the in$group. 3ocial psychologists Wuattrone and Jones

conducted a study demonstrating this with students rom the rival

schools *rinceton and )utgers. 3tudents at each school were shown

videos o other students rom each school choosing a type o musicto listen to or an auditory perception study. "hen the participants

were as%ed to guess what percentage o the videotaped students=

classmates would choose the same. *articipants predicted a much

greater similarity between out$group members 1the rival school4

than between members o their in$group.-I
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_attribution_errorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_attribution_errorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Tajfelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_group_paradigmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_group_paradigmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-group_homogeneity_biashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_attribution_errorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_attribution_errorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Tajfelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_group_paradigmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_group_paradigmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-group_homogeneity_bias


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"he ustication$suppression model o preudice was

created by Christian Crandall and Amy shleman. "his model

explains that people ace a confict between the desire to express

preudice and the desire to maintain a positive sel$concept. "his

confict causes people to search or ustication or disli%ing an out$

group, and to use that ustication to avoid negative eelings

1cognitive dissonance4 about themselves when they act on their

disli%e o the out$group.

"he realistic confict theorystates that competition

between limited resources leads to increased negative preudices

and discrimination. "his can be seen even when the resource is

insignicant. 8n the )obber=s Cave experiment, negative preudice

and hostility was created between two summer camps ater sports

competitions or small pri&es. "he hostility was lessened ater the

two competing camps were orced to cooperate on tas%s to achieve

a common goal.

CHAPTER III

CONC%USION AND SU33ESTION

"his chapter presents -4 the summary o the paper, 94 answer the

+uestion o paper +uestion and hypothesis, >4 implication and suggestion,

and ?4 recommendation or urther research.

9/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-concepthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realistic_conflict_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-concepthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_dissonancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realistic_conflict_theory


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$.1 Su&&ary

Cultural conficts occur as a result o misinterpretations,

ethnocentrisms, stereotypes and preudice. *reventing these conficts

is possible by increasing awareness o our own attitudes as well assensitivity to cross$cultural dierences. 2eveloping intellectual

sensitivity does not mean that we need to lose our cultural identities$

but rather that we recogni&e cultural infuences within ourselves and

within others.

$. An!4er"ng The Pa#er 5ue!t"on! And Hy#othe!"!

-. Cultural conficts that can occur in intercultural communication,

such as :

a. isinterpretations

b. thnocentrisms

c. 3tereotypes and *reudice

$.$ Sugge!t"on!

-. ;e have to increase awareness o our own attitudes as well assensitivity to cross$cultural dierences to prevent the occurs o

cultural confict during intercultural communication.

Reference!

6evine, 2eena ).&'()* +eyon! Language , ntercultural Communication .or

/nglish as a Secon! Language* Eew Jersey : *rentice$Ball 8nc.

http:en.wi%ipedia.orgwi%i*reudice1 (riday, ?th Eovember 9/--. -?:-/4

http:en.wi%ipedia.orgwi%ithnocentrism 1 (riday, ?th Eovember 9/--.

-?:-4

9-
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prejudicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocentrismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prejudicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocentrism


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http:en.wi%ipedia.orgwi%i8ntercultural]communication]principles 1 (riday,

?th Eovember 9/--. -?:9/4

http:en.wi%ipedia.orgwi%i3tereotype1 (riday, ?th Eovember 9/--. -?:9?4

99
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercultural_communication_principleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotypehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercultural_communication_principleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotype

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