BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing...

96
BAB 1 Pendahuluan 1.1. Arsitektur & Organisasi Arsitekture komputer berkaitan dengan atribute-atribute yang nampak bagi programmer Set Instruksi, jumlah bit yang digunakan untuk penyajian data, mekanisme I/O, teknik pengalamantan (addressing techniques). Contoh: apakah tersedia instruksi untuk perkalian? Organisasi komputer berkaitan dengan unit-unit operasional dan interkoneksinya yang merealisasikan spesifikasi arsitektural Control signals, interfaces, memory technology. Contoh: Apakah instruksi perkalian diimplementasikan secara hardware, ataukah dikerjakan dengan penambahan secara berulang? Arsitektur sama, organisasi dapat berbeda Arsitektur bertahan lama, organisasi menyesuaikan perkembangan teknologi Semua Intel famili x86 memiliki arsitektur dasar yang sama 1

Transcript of BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing...

Page 1: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

BAB 1Pendahuluan

1.1. Arsitektur & Organisasi

Arsitekture komputer berkaitan dengan atribute-atribute yang nampak bagi

programmer

Set Instruksi, jumlah bit yang digunakan untuk penyajian data,

mekanisme I/O, teknik pengalamantan (addressing techniques).

Contoh: apakah tersedia instruksi untuk perkalian?

Organisasi komputer berkaitan dengan unit-unit operasional dan

interkoneksinya yang merealisasikan spesifikasi arsitektural

Control signals, interfaces, memory technology.

Contoh: Apakah instruksi perkalian diimplementasikan secara hardware,

ataukah dikerjakan dengan penambahan secara berulang?

Arsitektur sama, organisasi dapat berbeda

Arsitektur bertahan lama, organisasi menyesuaikan perkembangan

teknologi

Semua Intel famili x86 memiliki arsitektur dasar yang sama

Famili IBM System/370 memiliki arsitektur dasar yang sama

Memberikan compatibilitas instruksi level mesin

At least backwards

Organisasi antar versi memiliki perbedaan

1.2. Struktur & Fungsi Strukture adalah bagaimana masing-masing komponen saling

berhubungan satu sama lain

Fungsi merupakan operasi dari masing-masing komponen sebagai bagian

dari struktur

1

Page 2: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

a. FUNGSI Semua komputer memiliki 4 fungsi:

Pengolahan data - Data processing

Penyimpanan data - Data storage

Pemindahan data - Data movement

Kendali – Control

Gambar 1.1. Komputer dilihat dari sudut pandang Fungsi.

a. Fungsi – Pemindahan data

Contoh: dari keyboard ke layar monitor

2

Page 3: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 1.2. Fungsi – Pemindahan datab. Fungsi – Penyimpanan data

Contoh: download dari internet

Gambar 1.3. Fungsi – Penyimpanan data

c. Fungsi – Pengolahan data

Contoh: updating bank statement

Gambar 1.4. Fungsi – Pengolahan data

3

Page 4: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

d. Fungsi – Pengolahan data

Contoh: pencetakan bank statement

Gambar 1.5. Fungsi – Pengolahan data

b. STRUKTUR

4

Page 5: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 1.6. Strukture Komputer - Top Level

Gambar 1.7. Strukture CPU

5

Page 6: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 1.8. Strukture - Control Unit

BAB 2Evolusi dan Kinerja Komputer

2.1. ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer

Eckert and Mauchly

University of Pennsylvania

Tabel Lintasan peluru

Mulai dibuat 1943

Selesai 1946

Terlambat untuk digunakan dlm PD-II

Dipakai sampai 1955

2.2. ENIAC - details Menggunakan sistem Decimal (bukan binary)

Memiliki 20 accumulator untuk 10 digits

Diprogram secara manual melalui sakelar

Berisi 18,000 vacuum tubes

Berat 30 tons

Luas 15,000 square feet

Daya 140 kW

Kecepatan: 5,000 penambahan per detik

2.3. von Neumann/Turing Konsep: Stored Program Computer

Main memory: menyimpan program dan data

ALU: mengerjakan operasi data biner

Control unit: interpretasi instruksi dari memory dan meng-eksekusi

Peratan Input/output dikendailkan oleh control unit

6

Page 7: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies

IAS

Selesai dibuat 1952

Gambar 2.1. Structure Mesin von Nuemann

2.4. IAS - details Kapasitas memori: 1000 x 40 bit words

Menggunakan sistem bilangan Biner

Panjang instruksi 20 bit ( 1 word = 2 instruksi )

Register-register dalam CPU

MBR (Memory Buffer Register)

MAR (Memory Address Register)

IR (Instruction Register)

IBR (Instruction Buffer Register)

PC (Program Counter)

AC (Accumulator)

MQ (Multiplier Quotient)

7

Page 8: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 2.2. Structure detail IAS

2.5. Komputer Komersial 1947 - Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation

UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)

Untuk kalkulasi sensus 1950 oleh US Bureau of Census

Menjadi divisi dari Sperry-Rand Corporation

UNIVAC II dipasarkan akhir th. 1950-an

Lebih cepat

Kapasitas memori lebih besar

2.6. IBM Pabrik peralatan Punched-card

1953 – IBM-701

Komputer pertama IBM (stored program computer)

Untuk keperluan aplikasi Scientific

8

Page 9: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

1955 – IBM- 702

Untuk applikasi bisnis

Merupakan awal dari seri 700/7000 yang membuat IBM menjadi pabrik

komputer yang dominan

2.7. Transistor Menggantikan vacuum tubes

Lebih kecil

Lebih murah

Disipasi panas sedikit

Merupakan komponen Solid State

Dibuat dari Silicon (Sand)

Ditemukan pada th 1947 di laboratorium Bell

Oleh William Shockley dkk.

2.8. Komputer berbasisTransistor Mesin generasi II

NCR & RCA menghasilkan small transistor machines

IBM 7000

DEC - 1957

Membuat PDP-1

2.9. Microelectronics Secara harafiah berarti “electronika kecil”

Sebuah computer dibuat dari gerbang logika (gate), sel memori dan

interkoneksi

Sejumlah gate dikemas dalam satu keping semikonduktor

silicon wafer

2.10. Generasi Komputer

9

Page 10: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

1946-1957 : Vacuum tube

1958-1964 : Transistor

1965-1971 : SSI - Small scale integration

Up to 100 devices on a chip

1971 : MSI - Medium scale integration (

100-3,000 devices on a chip

1971-1977 : LSI - Large scale integration

3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip

1978- : VLSI - Very large scale integration

100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip

Ultra large scale integration

Over 100,000,000 devices on a chip

2.11. Moore’s Law Gordon Moore - cofounder of Intel

Meningkatkan kerapatan komponen dalam chip

Jumlah transistors/chip meningkat 2 x lipat per tahun

Sejak 1970 pengembangan agak lambat

Jumlah transistors 2 x lipat setiap 18 bulan

Harga suatu chip tetap / hampir tidak berubah

Kerapatan tinggi berarti jalur pendek, menghasilkan kinerja yang

meningkat

Ukuran semakin kecil, flexibilitas meningkat

Daya listrik lebih hemat, panas menurun

Sambungan sedikit berarti semakin handal / reliable

10

Page 11: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 2.3. Jumlah Transistor dalam CPU

2.12. IBM seri 360 1964

Pengganti seri 7000 (tidak kompatibel)

Rancangan awal suatu “keluarga” komputer

Memiliki set instruksi yang sama atau identik

Menggunakan O/S yang sama atau identik

Kecepatan meningkat

Jumlah I/O ports bertambah (i.e. terminal tambah banyak)

Kapasitas memori bertambah

Harga meningkat

2.13. DEC PDP-8 1964

Minicomputer pertama

Tidak mengharuskan ruangan ber-AC

Ukurannya kecil

Harga $16,000

$100k+ untuk IBM 360

11

Page 12: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Embedded applications & OEM

Menggunakan BUS STRUCTURE

Gambar 2.4. Struktur Bus pada DEC - PDP-8

2.14. Memori Semiconductor 1970

Fairchild

Ukuran kecil ( sebesar 1 sel core memory)

Dapat menyimpan 256 bits

Non-destructive read

Lebih cepat dari core memory

Kapasitas meningkat 2 x lipat setiap tahun

2.15. Intel 1971 - 4004

Microprocessor pertama, CPU dalam 1 chip, 4 bit

1972 - 8008

12

Page 13: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

8 bit, Digunakan untuk aplikasi khusus

1974 - 8080

Microprocessor general purpose yang pertama dari Intel

1978 - 8086, 80286

1985 - 80386

1989 - 80486

2.16. Meningkatkan kecepatan Pipelining

On board cache

On board L1 & L2 cache

Branch prediction

Data flow analysis

Speculative execution

2.17. Performance Mismatch Kecepatan Processor meningkat

Kapasitas memory meningkat

Kecepatan memory tertinggal dari prosesor

13

Page 14: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 2.5. DRAM and Processor Characteristics

Gambar 2.6. Trends in DRAM use

14

Page 15: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

2.18. Solusi Meningkatkan jumlah bit per akses

Mengubah interface DRAM

Cache

Mengurangi frekuensicy akses memory

Cache yg lebih kompleks dan cache on chip

Meningkatkan bandwidth interkoneksi

Bus kecepatan tinggi - High speed buses

Hierarchy of buses

2.19. Pentium CISC

Menggunakan teknik-teknik superscalar

Eksekusi instruksi secara parallel

P6 : menggunakan:

Brach prediction

Data flow analisys

Specultive execution

P7 : menggunakan teknologi berbasis RISC

2.20. PowerPC Sistem RISC superscalar

Hasil kerjasama IBM – Motorolla - Apple

Diturunkan dari arsitektur POWER (IBM RS/6000)

Keluarga PowerPC:

601: 32-bit

603: low-end desktop dan komputer portabel

604: desktop dan low-end user

620: 64-bit penuh, high-end user

15

Page 16: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

BAB 3Bus Sistem

3.1. Konsep Program Pemrograman (hardware) merupakan proses penghu-bungan berbagai

komponen logik pada konfigurasi yang diinginkan untuk membentuk operasi

aritmatik dan logik pada data tertentu

Hardwired program tidak flexibel

General purpose hardware dapat mengerjakan berbagai macam tugas

tergantung sinyal kendali yang diberikan

Daripada melakukan re-wiring, Lebih baik menambah-kan sinyal-sinyal

kendali yang baru

3.2. Program Adalah suatu deretan langkah-langkah

Pada setiap langkah, dikerjakan suatu operasi arithmetic atau logical

Pada setiap operasi, diperlukan sejumlah sinyal kendali tertentu

3.3. Fungsi Control Unit Untuk setiap operasi disediakan kode yang unik

Contoh: ADD, MOVE

Bagian hardware tertentu menerima kode tersebut kemudian

menghasilkan sinyal-sinyal kendali

Jadilah komputer!

3.4. Komponen yang diperlukan Control Unit (CU) dan Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) membentuk Central

Processing Unit (CPU)

Data dan instruksi harus diberikan ke sistem dan dikeluarkan dari sistem

Input/output

16

Page 17: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Diperlukan tempat untuk menyimpan sementara kode instruksi dan hasil

operasi.

Main memory

Gambar 3.1. Komponen Komputer: Top Level View

17

Page 18: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

3.5. Siklus Instruksi Two steps:

Fetch

Execute

Gambar 3.2. Siklus Instruksi

3.6. Fetch Cycle Program Counter (PC) berisi address instruksi berikutnya yang akan

diambil

Processor mengambil instruksi dari memory pada lokasi yang ditunjuk

oleh PC

Naikkan PC

Kecuali ada perintah tertentu

Instruksi dimasukkan ke Instruction Register (IR)

Processor meng-interpret dan melakukan tindakan yang diperlukan

3.7. Execute Cycle Processor-memory

Transfer data antara CPU dengan main memory

18

Page 19: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Processor I/O

Transfer data antara CPU dengan I/O module

Data processing

Operasi arithmetic dan logical pada data tertentu

Control

Mengubah urutan operasi

Contoh: jump

Kombinasi diatas

19

Page 20: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 3.3. Contoh Eksekusi Program

Gambar 3.4. Diagram Keadaan Siklus Instruksi

3.8. Interrupt Suatu mekanisme yang disediakan bagi modul-modul lain (mis. I/O) untuk

dapat meng-interupsi operasi normal CPU

Program

Misal: overflow, division by zero

Timer

Dihasilkan oleh internal processor timer

Digunakan dalam pre-emptive multi-tasking

I/O

dari I/O controller

Hardware failure

Misal: memory parity error

20

Page 21: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 3.5. Program Flow Control

3.9. Siklus Interupsi Ditambahkan ke instruction cycle

Processor memeriksa adanya interrupt

Diberitahukan lewat interrupt signal

Jika tidak ada interrupt, fetch next instruction

21

Page 22: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Jika ada interrupt:

Tunda eksekusi dari program saat itu

Simpan context

Set PC ke awal address dari routine interrupt handler

Proses interrupt

Kembalikan context dan lanjutkan program yang terhenti.

Gambar 3.6. Diagram keadaan Siklus Instruksi dengan Interrupt

3.10. Multiple Interrupts Disable interrupts

Processor akan mengabaikan interrupt berikutnya

Interrupts tetap akan diperiksa setelah interrupt ynag pertama selesai

dilayani

Interrupts ditangani dalam urutan sesuai datangnya

22

Page 23: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Define priorities

Low priority interrupts dapat di interrupt oleh higher priority interrupts

Setelah higher priority interrupt selesai dilayani, akan kembali ke interrupt

sebelumnya.

Gambar 3.7. Multiple Interrupts – Sequential

23

Page 24: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 3.8. Multiple Interrupts - Nested3.11. Sambungan Semua unit harus tersambung

Unit yang beda memiliki sambungan yang beda

Memory

Input/Output

CPU

3.12. Sambungan Memori Menerima dan mengirim data

Menerima addresses

Menerima sinyal kendali

Read

Write

Timing

3.13. Sambungan Input/Output Serupa dengan sambungan memori

24

Page 25: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Output

Menerima data dari computer

Mengirimkan data ke peripheral

Input

Menerima data dari peripheral

Mengirimkan data ke computer

3.14. Sambungan Input/Output Menerima sinyal kendali dari computer

Mengirimkan sinyal kendali ke peripherals

Contoh: spin disk

Menerima address dari computer

Contoh: nomor port

Mengirimkan sinyal interrupt

3.15. CPU Connection Membaca instruksi dan data

Menuliskan data (setelah diproses)

Mengirimkan sinyal kendali ke unit-unit lain

Menerima (& menanggapi) interrupt

3.16. Bus Ada beberapa kemungkinan interkoneksi sistem

Yang biasa dipakai: Single Bus dan multiple BUS

PC: Control/Address/Data bus

DEC-PDP: Unibus

a. Pengertian Bus Jalur komunikasi yang menghubungkan beberapa device

Biasanya menggunakan cara broadcast

Seringkali dikelompokkan

25

Page 26: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Satu bus berisi sejumlah kanal (jalur)

Contoh bus data 32-bit berisi 32 jalur

Jalur sumber tegangan biasanya tidak diperlihatkan

b. Data Bus Membawa data

Tidak dibedakan antara “data” dan “instruksi”

Lebar jalur menentukan performance

8, 16, 32, 64 bit

c. Address bus Menentukan asal atau tujuan dari data

Misalkan CPU perlu membaca instruksi (data) dari memori pada lokasi

tertentu

Lebar jalur menentukan kapasitas memori maksimum dari sistem

Contoh 8080 memiliki 16 bit address bus maka ruang memori maksimum

adalah 64k

d. Control Bus Informasi kendali dan timing

Sinyal read/write memory (MRD/MWR)

Interrupt request (IRQ)

Clock signals (CK)

26

Page 27: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 3.9. Skema Interkoneksi Bus

e. Bentuk Fisik Bagaimana bentuk fisik bus?

Jalur-jalur parallel PCB

Ribbon cables

Strip connectors pada mother boards

contoh PCI

Kumpulan kabel

3.17. Problem pada Single Bus Banyak devices pada bus tunggal menyebabkan:

Propagation delays

Jalur data yg panjang berarti memerlukan koordinasi pemkaian shg

berpengaruh pada performance

If aggregate data transfer approaches bus capacity

27

Page 28: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Kebanyakan sistem menggunakan multiple bus

Gambar 3.10. Bus Traditional (ISA)(menggunakan cache)

Gambar 3.11. High Performance Bus

28

Page 29: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

3.18. Jenis Bus Dedicated

Jalur data & address terpisah

Multiplexed

Jalur bersama

Address dan data pada saat yg beda

Keuntungan – jalur sedikit

Kerugian

Kendali lebih komplek

Mempengaruhi performance

3.19. Arbitrasi Bus Beberapa modul mengendalikan bus

contoh CPU dan DMA controller

Setiap saat hanya satu modul yg mengendalikan

Arbitrasi bisa secara centralised atau distributed

3.20. Arbitrasi Centralised Ada satu hardware device yg mengendalikan akses bus

Bus Controller

Arbitrer

Bisa berupa bagian dari CPU atau terpisah

3.21. Arbitrasi Distributed Setiap module dapat meng-klaim bus

Setiap modules memiliki Control logic

3.22. Timing Koordinasi event pada bus

Synchronous

Event ditentukan oleh sinyal clock

29

Page 30: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Control Bus termasuk jalur clock

Siklus bus ( bus cycle) transmisi 1 ke 0

Semua devices dpt membaca jakur clock

Biasanya sinkronisasi terjadi pada tepi naik (leading edge)

Suatu event biasanya dimualai pada awal siklus

Gambar 3.12. Synchronous Timing Diagram

Gambar 3.12. Asynchronous Timing Diagram

30

Page 31: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

3.23. Bus PCI Peripheral Component Interconnection

Dikeluarkan oleh Intel sebagai public domain

32 atau 64 bit

50 Jalur

3.24. Jalur pada Bus PCI (yg harus) Jalur System

clock and reset

Address & Data

32 jalur multiplex address/data

Jalur validasi

Interface Control

Arbitrasi

Not shared

Direct connection to PCI bus arbiter

Error lines

3.25. Jalur Bus PCI (Optional) Interrupt lines

Not shared

Cache support

64-bit Bus Extension

Additional 32 lines

Time multiplexed

2 lines to enable devices to agree to use 64-bit transfer

JTAG/Boundary Scan

For testing procedures

3.26. Command pada PCI Transaksi antara initiator (master) dg target

Master pegang kendali bus

31

Page 32: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Master menentukan jenis transaksi

Misal I/O read/write

Fase Address

Fase Data

Gambar 3.14. PCI Read Timing Diagram

32

Page 33: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 3.15. PCI Bus Arbitration

BAB 4MEMORI INTERNAL

4.1. Karakteristik Memori Lokasi

Kapasitas

Unit transfer

Metode Akses

Kinerja

Jenis fisik

Sifat-sifat fisik

Organisasi

33

Page 34: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

4.2. Lokasi CPU (register)

Internal (main memori)

External (secondary memori)

4.3. Kapasitas Ukuran Word

Satuan alami organisasi memori

Banyaknya words

atau Bytes

4.4. Satuan Transfer Internal

Jumlah bit dalam sekali akses

Sama dengan jumlah saluran data (= ukuran word)

External

Dalam satuan block yg merupakan kelipatan word

Addressable unit

Lokasi terkecil yang dpt dialamati secara uniq

Secara internal biasanya sama dengan Word

Untuk disk digunakan satuan Cluster

4.5. Metode Akses Sekuensial Mulai dari awal sampai lokasi yang dituju

Waktu akses tergantung pada lokasi data dan lokasi sebelumnya

Contoh tape

Direct Setiap blocks memilki address yg unique

Pengaksesan dengan cara lompat ke kisaran umum (general vicinity)

ditambah pencarian sekuensial

34

Page 35: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Waktu akses tdk tergantung pada lokasi dan lokasi sebelumnya

contoh disk

4.6. Metode Akses Random Setiap lokasi memiliki alamat tertentu

Waktu akses tdk tergantung pada urutan akses sebelumnya

Contoh RAM

Associative Data dicarai berdasarkan isinya bukan berdasarkan alamatnya

Waktu akses tdk tergantung terhadap lokasi atau pola akses sebelumnya

Contoh: cache

4.7. Hierarki Memori Register

Dalam CPU

Internal/Main memory

Bisa lebih dari satu level dengan adanya cache

“RAM”

External memory

Penyimpan cadangan

4.8. Performance Access time

Waktu untuk melakukan operasi baca-tulis

Memory Cycle time

Diperlukan waktu tambahan untuk recovery sebelum akses berikutnya

Access time + recovery

Transfer Rate

Kecepatan transfer data ke/dari unit memori

35

Page 36: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

4.9. Jenis Fisik Semiconductor

RAM

Magnetic

Disk & Tape

Optical

CD & DVD

Others

Bubble

Hologram

4.10. Karakteristik Decay

Volatility

Erasable

Power consumption

Organisasi Susunan fisik bit-bit untuk membentuk word

4.11. Kendala Rancangan Berapa banyak?

Capacity

Seberapa cepat?

Time is money

Berapa mahal?

4.12. Hierarki Registers

L1 Cache

L2 Cache

36

Page 37: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Main memory

Disk cache

Disk

Optical

Tape

4.13. Ingin Komputer yg Cepat? Komputer hanya menggunakan static RAM

Akan sangat cepat

Tidak diperlukan cache

Apa perlu cache untuk cache?

Harga menjadi sangat mahal

4.14. Locality of Reference Selama berlangsungnya eksekusi suatu program, referensi memori

cenderung untuk mengelompok (cluster)

Contoh: loops

4.15. Memori Semiconductor RAM

Penamaan yang salah karena semua memori semiconductor adalah

random access (termasuk ROM)

Read/Write

Volatile

Penyimpan sementara

Static atau dynamic

4.16. Dynamic RAM Bit tersimpan berupa muatan dalam capacitor

37

Page 38: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Muatan dapat bocor

Perlu di-refresh

Konstruksi sederhana

Ukuran per bit nya kecil

Murah

Perlu refresh-circuits

Lambat

Main memory

4.17. Static RAM Bit disimpan sebagai switches on/off

Tidk ada kebocoran

Tdk perlu refreshing

Konstruksi lebih complex

Ukuran per bit lebih besar

Lebih mahal

Tidak memerlukan refresh-circuits

Lebih cepat

Cache

4.18. Read Only Memory (ROM) Menyimpan secara permanen

Untuk

Microprogramming

Library subroutines

Systems programs (BIOS)

Function tables

4.19. Jenis ROM Ditulisi pada saat dibuat

Sangat mahal

38

Page 39: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Programmable (once)

PROM

Diperlukan peralatan khusus untuk memprogram

Read “mostly”

Erasable Programmable (EPROM)

Dihapus dg sinar UV

Electrically Erasable (EEPROM)

Perlu waktu lebih lama untuk menulisi

Flash memory

Menghapus seleuruh memori secara electris

4.20. Organisasi 16Mbit chip dapat disusun dari 1M x 16 bit word

1 bit/chip memiliki 16 lots dengan bit ke 1 dari setiap word berada pada

chip 1

16Mbit chip dapat disusun dari array: 2048 x 2048 x 4bit

Mengurangi jumlah addres pins

Multiplex row address dg column address

11 pins untuk address (211=2048)

Menambah 1 pin kapasitas menjadi 4x

4.21. Refreshing Rangkaian Refresh diamsukkan dalam chip

Disable chip

Pencacahan melalui baris

Read & Write back

Perlu waktu

Menurunkan kinerja

39

Page 40: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 4.1. Contoh: 16 Mb DRAM (4M x 4)

40

Page 41: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 4.2. Packaging

Gambar 4.3. Organisation Module

41

Page 42: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 4.4. Organisation Modul (2)

4.22. Koreksi kesalahan Rusak berat

Cacat/rusak Permanent

Rusak ringan

Random, non-destructive

Rusak non permanent

Dideteksi menggunakan Hamming code

42

Page 43: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 4.5. Error Correcting Code Function

4.23. Cache Memori cepat dg kapasitas yg sedikit

Terletak antara main memory dengan CPU

Bisa saja diletakkan dalam chip CPU atau module tersendiri

Gambar 4.6. Hubungan Cache dengan CPU dan Main Memory.

43

Page 44: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

4.24. Operasi pada Cache CPU meminta isi data dari lokasi memori tertentu

Periksa data tersebut di cache

Jika ada ambil dari cache (cepat)

Jika tidak ada, baca 1 block data dari main memory ke cache

Ambil dari cache ke CPU

Cache bersisi tags untuk identitas block dari main memory yang berada di

cache

4.25. Desain Cache Ukuran (size)

Fungsi Mapping

Algoritma penggantian (replacement algrthm)

Cara penulisan (write policy)

Ukuran Block

Jumlah Cache

4.26. Size Cost

Semakin besar semakin mahal

Speed

Semakin besar semakin cepat

Check data di cache perlu waktu

44

Page 45: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 4.7. Organisasi Cache

4.27. Fungsi Mapping Ukuran Cache 64kByte

Ukuran block 4 bytes

diperlukan 16k (214) alamat per alamat 4 bytes

Jumlah jalur alamat cache 14

Main memory 16MBytes

Jalur alamat perlu 24 bit

(224=16M)

4.28. Direct Mapping Setiap block main memory dipetakan hanya ke satu jalur cache

Jika suatu block ada di cache, maka tempatnya sudah tertentu

Address terbagi dalam 2 bagian

LS-w-bit menunjukkan word tertentu

MS-s-bit menentukan 1 blok memori

MSB terbagi menjadi field jalur cache r dan tag sebesar s-r (most

significant)

45

Page 46: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

4.29. Struktur Alamat Direct Mapping 24 bit address

2 bit : word identifier (4 byte block)

22 bit: block identifier

8 bit tag (=22-14)

14 bit slot atau line

2 blocks pada line yg sama tidak boleh memiliki tag yg sama

Cek isi cache dengan mencari line dan Tag

Gambar 4.8. Struktur Alamat Direct Mapping

4.30. Table Cache Line pada Direct Mapping Cache line blocks main memori

0 0, m, 2m, 3m…2s-m

1 1,m+1, 2m+1…2s-m+1

m-1 m-1, 2m-1,3m-1…2s-1

46

Page 47: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar4.9. Organisai Cache Direct Mapping

Gambar 4.10. Contoh Direct Mapping

47

Page 48: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

4.31. Keuntungan & Kerugian Direct Mapping Sederhana

Murah

Suatu blok memiliki lokasi yang tetap

Jika program mengakses 2 block yang di map ke line yang sama secara

berulang-ulang, maka cache-miss sanagat tinggi

4.32. Associative Mapping Blok main memori dpt di simpan ke cache line mana saja

Alamat Memori di interpresi sbg tag dan word

Tag menunjukan identitas block memori

Setiap baris tag dicari kecocokannya

Pencarian data di Cache menjadi lama

Gambar 4.11. Organisasi Cache Fully Associative

48

Page 49: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 4.12. Contoh Associative Mapping

4.33. Struktur Address Associative Mapping 22 bit tag disimpan untuk blok data 32 bit

tag field dibandingkan dg tag entry dalam cache untuk pengecekan data

LS 2 bits dari address menunjukkan 16 bit word yang diperlukan dari 32

bit data block

contoh

Address Tag Data Cache line

FFFFFC FFFFFC 24682468 3FFF

4.34. Set Associative Mapping Cache dibagi dalam sejumlah sets

Setiap set berisi sejumlah line

Suatu blok di maps ke line mana saja dalam set

misalkan Block B dapat berada pada line mana saja dari set i

49

Page 50: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Contoh: per set ada 2 line

2 way associative mapping

Suatu block dpt berada pada satu dari 2 lines dan hanya dalam 1 set

4.35. Contoh Set Associative Mapping Nomor set 13 bit

Nomor Block dlm main memori adl modulo 213

000000, 00A000, 00B000, 00C000 … map ke set yang sama

Gambar 4.13. Organisasi Cache: Two Way Set Associative

50

Page 51: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

4.36. Struktur Address: Set Associative Mapping set field untuk menentukan set cache set yg dicari

Bandingkan tag field untuk mencari datanya

Contoh:

Address Tag Data Set number

1FF 7FFC 1FF 12345678 1FFF

001 7FFC 001 11223344 1FFF

Gambar 4.14. Contoh Two Way Set Associative Mapping

51

Page 52: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

4.37. Replacement Algorithms (1) Direct mapping Tidak ada pilihan

Setiap block hanya di map ke 1 line

Ganti line tersebut

4.38. Replacement Algorithms (2) Associative & Set Associative Hardware implemented algorithm (speed)

Least Recently used (LRU)

e.g. in 2 way set associative

Which of the 2 block is lru?

First in first out (FIFO)

replace block that has been in cache longest

Least frequently used

replace block which has had fewest hits

Random

4.39. Write Policy Must not overwrite a cache block unless main memory is up to date

Multiple CPUs may have individual caches

I/O may address main memory directly

4.40. Write through All writes go to main memory as well as cache

Multiple CPUs can monitor main memory traffic to keep local (to CPU)

cache up to date

Lots of traffic

Slows down writes

Remember bogus write through caches!

4.41. Write back

52

Page 53: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Updates initially made in cache only

Update bit for cache slot is set when update occurs

If block is to be replaced, write to main memory only if update bit is set

Other caches get out of sync

I/O must access main memory through cache

N.B. 15% of memory references are writes

4.42. Pentium Cache Foreground reading

Find out detail of Pentium II cache systems

NOT just from Stallings!

4.43. Newer RAM Technology (1) Basic DRAM same since first RAM chips

Enhanced DRAM

Contains small SRAM as well

SRAM holds last line read (c.f. Cache!)

Cache DRAM

Larger SRAM component

Use as cache or serial buffer

4.44. Newer RAM Technology (2) Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)

currently on DIMMs

Access is synchronized with an external clock

Address is presented to RAM

RAM finds data (CPU waits in conventional DRAM)

Since SDRAM moves data in time with system clock, CPU knows when

data will be ready

CPU does not have to wait, it can do something else

Burst mode allows SDRAM to set up stream of data and fire it out in block

53

Page 54: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 4.15. SDRAM

4.45. Newer RAM Technology (3) Foreground reading

54

Page 55: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Check out any other RAM you can find

See Web site:

The RAM Guide

BAB 5Memori External

55

Page 56: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

5.1. Jenis Memori ExternaL Magnetic Disk

RAID

Removable

Optical

CD-ROM

CD-Writable (WORM)

CD-R/W

DVD

Magnetic Tape

5.2. Magnetic Disk Metal atau plastic dilapisi dg material yg bersifat magnet (iron oxide)

Jenis kemasan

Floppy

Winchester hard disk

Removable hard disk

5.3. Format dan Organisasi Data Lingkaran konsentris atau track

Ada Gap antar track

Gap sempit, kapasitas bertambah

Jumlah bit per track sama (kerapatan bervariasi)

Kecepatan putar tetap

Track dibagi menjadi beberapa sector

Ukuran minimum block adalah satu sector

Satu block bisa berisi lebih dari satu sector

5.4. Fixed/Movable Head Disk

56

Page 57: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Fixed head

Ada satu head (r/w) per track

Head diletakkan pada tangkai yg tetap

Movable head

Hanya ada satu head per side

Diletakkan pada tangkai yg dpt bergerak

5.5. Removable / Nonremovable Removable disk

Dapat dilepas dari drive dan diganti dg disk lain

Memberikan kapasitas simpanan yg tak terbatas

Mudah melakukan transfer data antar sistem

Nonremovable disk

Terpasanang permanen dalam drive

5.6. Floppy Disk 8”, 5.25”, 3.5”

Kapasitas kecil

sampai 1.44Mbyte (ada yg 2.88M)

Lambat

Umum dipakai

Murah

5.7. Winchester Hard Disk (1) Dikembangkan oleh IBM di Winchester (USA)

Dikemas dalam satu unit

Berisi satu cakram atau lebih

Head sangat kecil

Handal

5.8. Winchester Hard Disk (2)

57

Page 58: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Umum digunakan

Murah

Sbg external storage yg sangat cepat

Kapasitas semakin besar

Dalam orde GB

5.9. Removable Hard Disk ZIP

Murah

Banyak digunakan

100MB

JAZ

Mahal

1G

L-120 (a: drive)

Juga dpt untuk membaca 3.5” floppy

5.10. Pencarian Sector Harus dapat mengenali awal suatu track dan sector

Format disk

Menambahkan informasi tambahan

Memberi tanda awal track dan sector

58

Page 59: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 5.11. ST506 format (old!)

5.11. Karakteristik Fixed head atau movable head

Removable disk atau fixed disk

Single side atau double side

Single platter atau multiple platter

Mekanisme head

Contact (Floppy)

Fixed gap

Flying (Winchester)

5.12. Multiple Platter Satu head per side

Semua head di-join dan di-align

Track-track yg setiap platter membentuk cylinder

Data dipecah berdasarkan cylinder

59

Page 60: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Mengurangi gerakan head

Meningkatkan kecepatan (transfer rate)

5.13. Kecepatan Seek time

gerakan head ke track yg dituju

(Rotational) latency

Putar platter sampai posisi data dibawah head

Access time = Seek + Latency

Transfer rate

5.14. RAID Redundant Array of Independent Disks

Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks

Ada 6 level

Tidak berhirarki

Sejumlah disks (fisik) yg dipandang sbg satu drive (logical) oleh Sistem

Operasi

Data tersebar diantara disk fisik

5.15. RAID 0 No redundancy

Data striped across all disks

Round Robin striping

Increase speed

Multiple data requests probably not on same disk

Disks seek in parallel

A set of data is likely to be striped across multiple disks

60

Page 61: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

5.16. RAID 1 Mirrored Disks

Data is striped across disks

2 copies of each stripe on separate disks

Read from either

Write to both

Recovery is simple

Swap faulty disk & re-mirror

No down time

Expensive

5.17. RAID 2 Disks are synchronized

Very small stripes

Often single byte/word

Error correction calculated across corresponding bits on disks

Multiple parity disks store Hamming code error correction in corresponding

positions

Lots of redundancy

Expensive

Not used

5.18. RAID 3 Similar to RAID 2

Only one redundant disk, no matter how large the array

Simple parity bit for each set of corresponding bits

Data on failed drive can be reconstructed from surviving data and parity

info

Very high transfer rates

61

Page 62: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

5.19. RAID 4 Each disk operates independently

Good for high I/O request rate

Large stripes

Bit by bit parity calculated across stripes on each disk

Parity stored on parity disk

5.20. RAID 5 Like RAID 4

Parity striped across all disks

Round robin allocation for parity stripe

Avoids RAID 4 bottleneck at parity disk

Commonly used in network servers

N.B. DOES NOT MEAN 5 DISKS!!!!!

5.21. Optical Storage CD-ROM Originally for audio

650Mbytes giving over 70 minutes audio

Polycarbonate coated with highly reflective coat, usually aluminum

Data stored as pits

Read by reflecting laser

Constant packing density

Constant linear velocity

5.22. CD-ROM Drive Speeds Audio is single speed

Constant linier velocity

1.2 ms-1

Track (spiral) is 5.27km long

Gives 4391 seconds = 73.2 minutes

62

Page 63: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Other speeds are quoted as multiples

e.g. 24x

The quoted figure is the maximum the drive can achieve

Gambar 5.2. CD-ROM Format

Mode 0=blank data field

Mode 1=2048 byte data+error correction

Mode 2=2336 byte data

5.23. Random Access on CD-ROM Difficult

Move head to rough position

Set correct speed

Read address

Adjust to required location

(Yawn!)

63

Page 64: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

5.24. CD-ROM for & against Large capacity (?)

Easy to mass produce

Removable

Robust

Expensive for small runs

Slow

Read only

5.25. Other Optical Storage CD-Writable

WORM

Now affordable

Compatible with CD-ROM drives

CD-RW

Erasable

Getting cheaper

Mostly CD-ROM drive compatible

5.26. DVD - what’s in a name? Digital Video Disk

Used to indicate a player for movies

Only plays video disks

Digital Versatile Disk

Used to indicate a computer drive

Will read computer disks and play video disks

Dogs Veritable Dinner

Officially - nothing!!!

64

Page 65: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

5.27. DVD - technology Multi-layer

Very high capacity (4.7G per layer)

Full length movie on single disk

Using MPEG compression

Finally standardized (honest!)

Movies carry regional coding

Players only play correct region films

Can be “fixed”

5.28. DVD - Writable Loads of trouble with standards

First generation DVD drives may not read first generation DVD-W disks

First generation DVD drives may not read CD-RW disks

Wait for it to settle down before buying!

5.29. Foreground Reading Check out optical disk storage options

Check out Mini Disk

5.30. Magnetic Tape Serial access

Slow

Very cheap

Backup and archive

5.31. Digital Audio Tape (DAT)

65

Page 66: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Uses rotating head (like video)

High capacity on small tape

4Gbyte uncompressed

8Gbyte compressed

Backup of PC/network servers

BAB 6

66

Page 67: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Input/Output

6.1. Input/Output Problems Wide variety of peripherals

Delivering different amounts of data

At different speeds

In different formats

All slower than CPU and RAM

Need I/O modules

6.2. Input/Output Module Interface to CPU and Memory

Interface to one or more peripherals

GENERIC MODEL OF I/O DIAGRAM 6.1

6.3. External Devices Human readable

Screen, printer, keyboard

Machine readable

Monitoring and control

Communication

Modem

Network Interface Card (NIC)

6.4. I/O Module Function Control & Timing

CPU Communication

Device Communication

Data Buffering

Error Detection

67

Page 68: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

6.5. I/O Steps CPU checks I/O module device status

I/O module returns status

If ready, CPU requests data transfer

I/O module gets data from device

I/O module transfers data to CPU

Variations for output, DMA, etc.

Gambar 6.1. I/O Module Diagram

6.6. I/O Module Decisions Hide or reveal device properties to CPU

Support multiple or single device

Control device functions or leave for CPU

Also O/S decisions

e.g. Unix treats everything it can as a file

6.7. Input Output Techniques

68

Page 69: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Programmed

Interrupt driven

Direct Memory Access (DMA)

6.8. Programmed I/O CPU has direct control over I/O

Sensing status

Read/write commands

Transferring data

CPU waits for I/O module to complete operation

Wastes CPU time

6.9. Programmed I/O - detail CPU requests I/O operation

I/O module performs operation

I/O module sets status bits

CPU checks status bits periodically

I/O module does not inform CPU directly

I/O module does not interrupt CPU

CPU may wait or come back later

6.10. I/O Commands CPU issues address

Identifies module (& device if >1 per module)

CPU issues command

Control - telling module what to do

e.g. spin up disk

Test - check status

e.g. power? Error?

Read/Write

Module transfers data via buffer from/to device

69

Page 70: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

6.11. Addressing I/O Devices Under programmed I/O data transfer is very like memory access (CPU

viewpoint)

Each device given unique identifier

CPU commands contain identifier (address)

6.12. I/O Mapping Memory mapped I/O

Devices and memory share an address space

I/O looks just like memory read/write

No special commands for I/O

Large selection of memory access commands available

Isolated I/O

Separate address spaces

Need I/O or memory select lines

Special commands for I/O

Limited set

6.13. Interrupt Driven I/O Overcomes CPU waiting

No repeated CPU checking of device

I/O module interrupts when ready

6.14. Interrupt Driven I/OBasic Operation

CPU issues read command

I/O module gets data from peripheral whilst CPU does other work

I/O module interrupts CPU

CPU requests data

I/O module transfers data

70

Page 71: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

6.15. CPU Viewpoint Issue read command

Do other work

Check for interrupt at end of each instruction cycle

If interrupted:-

Save context (registers)

Process interrupt

Fetch data & store

See Operating Systems notes

6.16. Design Issues How do you identify the module issuing the interrupt?

How do you deal with multiple interrupts?

i.e. an interrupt handler being interrupted

6.17. Identifying Interrupting Module (1) Different line for each module

PC

Limits number of devices

Software poll

CPU asks each module in turn

Slow

6.18. Identifying Interrupting Module (2) Daisy Chain or Hardware poll

Interrupt Acknowledge sent down a chain

Module responsible places vector on bus

CPU uses vector to identify handler routine

Bus Master

Module must claim the bus before it can raise interrupt

71

Page 72: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

e.g. PCI & SCSI

6.19. Multiple Interrupts Each interrupt line has a priority

Higher priority lines can interrupt lower priority lines

If bus mastering only current master can interrupt

6.20. Example - PC Bus 80x86 has one interrupt line

8086 based systems use one 8259A interrupt controller

8259A has 8 interrupt lines

6.21. Sequence of Events 8259A accepts interrupts

8259A determines priority

8259A signals 8086 (raises INTR line)

CPU Acknowledges

8259A puts correct vector on data bus

CPU processes interrupt

72

Page 73: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 6.2. PC Interrupt Layout

6.22. ISA Bus Interrupt System ISA bus chains two 8259As together

Link is via interrupt 2

Gives 15 lines

16 lines less one for link

IRQ 9 is used to re-route anything trying to use IRQ 2

Backwards compatibility

Incorporated in chip set

73

Page 74: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 6.3. ISA Interrupt Layout

6.23. Direct Memory Access Interrupt driven and programmed I/O require active CPU intervention

Transfer rate is limited

CPU is tied up

DMA is the answer

6.24. DMA Function Additional Module (hardware) on bus

DMA controller takes over from CPU for I/O

6.25. DMA Operation CPU tells DMA controller:-

Read/Write

Device address

Starting address of memory block for data

Amount of data to be transferred

CPU carries on with other work

DMA controller deals with transfer

74

Page 75: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

DMA controller sends interrupt when finished

6.26. DMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle

Transfer of one word of data

Not an interrupt

CPU does not switch context

CPU suspended just before it accesses bus

i.e. before an operand or data fetch or a data write

Slows down CPU but not as much as CPU doing transfer

6.27. Aside What effect does caching memory have on DMA?

Hint: how much are the system buses available?

Gambar 6.4. DMA Configurations (1) Single Bus, Detached DMA controller

Each transfer uses bus twice

I/O to DMA then DMA to memory

CPU is suspended twice

75

Page 76: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 6.5. DMA Configurations (2) Single Bus, Integrated DMA controller

Controller may support >1 device

Each transfer uses bus once

DMA to memory

CPU is suspended once

Gambar 6.6. DMA Configurations (3)

76

Page 77: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Separate I/O Bus

Bus supports all DMA enabled devices

Each transfer uses bus once

DMA to memory

CPU is suspended once

6.28. I/O Channels I/O devices getting more sophisticated

e.g. 3D graphics cards

CPU instructs I/O controller to do transfer

I/O controller does entire transfer

Improves speed

Takes load off CPU

Dedicated processor is faster

6.29. Interfacing Connecting devices together

Bit of wire?

Dedicated processor/memory/buses?

E.g. SCSI, FireWire

6.30. Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) Parallel interface

8, 16, 32 bit data lines

Daisy chained

Devices are independent

Devices can communicate with each other as well as host

6.31. SCSI - 1 Early 1980s

77

Page 78: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

8 bit

5MHz

Data rate 5MBytes.s-1

Seven devices

Eight including host interface

6.32. SCSI - 2 1991

16 and 32 bit

10MHz

Data rate 20 or 40 Mbytes.s-1

(Check out Ultra/Wide SCSI)

6.33. SCSI Signaling (1) Between initiator and target

Usually host & device

Bus free? (c.f. Ethernet)

Arbitration - take control of bus (c.f. PCI)

Select target

Reselection

Allows reconnection after suspension

e.g. if request takes time to execute, bus can be released

6.34. SCSI Signaling (2) Command - target requesting from initiator

Data request

Status request

Message request (both ways)

78

Page 79: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Gambar 6.7. SCSI Bus Phases

6.35. Configuring SCSI Bus must be terminated at each end

Usually one end is host adapter

Plug in terminator or switch(es)

SCSI Id must be set

Jumpers or switches

Unique on chain

0 (zero) for boot device

Higher number is higher priority in arbitration

6.36. IEEE 1394 FireWire High performance serial bus

Fast

Low cost

Easy to implement

Also being used in digital cameras, VCRs and TV

79

Page 80: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

6.37. FireWire Configuration Daisy chain

Up to 63 devices on single port

Really 64 of which one is the interface itself

Up to 1022 buses can be connected with bridges

Automatic configuration

No bus terminators

May be tree structure

6.38. FireWire 3 Layer Stack Physical

Transmission medium, electrical and signaling characteristics

Link

Transmission of data in packets

Transaction

Request-response protocol

6.39. FireWire - Physical Layer Data rates from 25 to 400Mbps

Two forms of arbitration

Based on tree structure

Root acts as arbiter

First come first served

Natural priority controls simultaneous requests

i.e. who is nearest to root

Fair arbitration

Urgent arbitration

6.40. FireWire - Link Layer

80

Page 81: BAB 1 - Uky Yudatama, S.Si, M.Kom | Tidak Ada Kata Sulit ... · Web viewDMA Transfer Cycle Stealing DMA controller takes over bus for a cycle Transfer of one word of data Not an interrupt

Two transmission types

Asynchronous

Variable amount of data and several bytes of transaction data transferred

as a packet

To explicit address

Acknowledgement returned

Isochronous

Variable amount of data in sequence of fixed size packets at regular

intervals

Simplified addressing

No acknowledgement

81