Teori Komunikasi KeorganisasianKOC 3232

Dr. Hamisah Zaharah Hasan hamisah@fbmk.upm.edu.my

Objektif

Pada akhir kursus ini pelajar akan

dapat: Menerangkan asal-usul teori dalam

komunikasi keorganisasian

Menghuraikan teori berkaitan

komunikasi keorganisasian

Mengaitkan kepentingan memahami

teori dalam komunikasi keorganisasian

Sinopsis

Kursus ini merangkumi teori komunikasi organisasi

dalam pendekatan klasikal dan saintifik; teori

dalam pendekatan hubungan kemanusiaan,

teori dalam pendekatan kontemporari iaitu

pendekatan kritikal. Bentuk dan kandungan

komunikasi dalam pendekatan tersebut dan

implikasi teori kepada komunikasi

keorganisasian.

Penilaian Kursus

Ujian 30 %

Tugasan Kumpulan 30 %

Peperiksaan Akhir 40%

RujukanByres, P.Y. 1997. Organizational communications:theory

and behavior. Boston:Allyn & Bacon

Eisenberg,E.M. &Goodall Jr.,H.L.1997. Organizational communication:Balancing creativity and constraint.(2nd ed.). NY:St. Martin’s

Miller,K. 1999. Organizational communication. Approaches and processes. (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA:Wadsworth

Neher, W.W. 1997. Organizational communication: challenges of charge, diversity, and continuity. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Tugasan Berkumpulan (30 %)

Pilih satu Drama TV yang popular dewasa ini. Senaraikan 5 ciri pekerja dalam organisasi seperti yang dibincangkan oleh teori X and Y yang terdapat dalam drama tersebut. Terangkan secara ringkas 5 ciri yang disenaraikan itu.

Tugasan ini perlu disempurnakan secara berkumpulan. Rujuk cara penulisan yang menggunakan gaya penulisan APA. Tugasan hendaklah bertaip langkau dua menggunakan font 12 poin Arial atau Times New Roman dengan tidak melebihi 5 halaman. Tugasan perlu diserahkan pada tarikh perjumpaan bersemuka kedua. Tugasan yang lewat tidak akan diterima.

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TeoriKeorganisasianKlasikal

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Idea utamateori keorganisasian klasikal

Terdapat satu cara terbaik melaksanakan tugas

(There is “one best way” to perform a task)

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Terhasil daripada dua perspektif:

Pengurusan saintifik – fokus terhadap pengurusan kerja dan pekerja

Pengurusan pentadbiran – menekankan isu berkaitan bagaimana keseluruhan struktur organisasi perlu dibentuk

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Penyumbang utama terhadap pembentukan teori tersebut

Pengurusan saintifik:»Frederick Taylor

Pengurusan pentadbiran:»Henri Fayol »Luther Halsey Gulick»Max Weber

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Frederick Taylor

•Taylor dilahirkan di Pennsylvania pada 20 March 1856

• Tamat pengajian di Eropah, bercadang untuk memasuki universiti Harvard, namun gagal ujian kemasukan.

•Taylor kemudian bertugas di syarikat mengeluarkan “pump” di Philadelphia

•Beliau kemudian mengikuti pengajian kejuruteraan mekanikal di Stevens, dan tamat dalam masa hanya tiga tahun.

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Midvale Steel Company

Taylor mula bertugas di Midvale steel Company pada 1878.

Berjaya melipat-gandakan produktiviti pekerja-pekerjanya dan dinaik pangkat kepada foreman

Mulai mengkaji mengenai produktiviti sebagai satu cara mengukur pengeluaran.

Kemudian dilantik menjadi Ketua Jurutera di Midvale.

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Pencapaian

Mereka sistem untuk memaksimumkan kerja yang efisyen dari pekerja dan mesin.

Fokus terhadap kajian mengenai masa dan pergerakan dan bagaimana menyelesaikan tugas dalam jangkamasa yang singkat.

Menjadi Jurutera Perunding kepada beberapa syarikat.

Menulis —The Principles of Scientific Management

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Prinsip Utama Pengurusan Saintifik

1. Analisis tugas secara saintifik – pemerhatian, pengumpulan data dan pengukuran yang betul untuk mengenalpasti cara terbaik melaksanakan setiap tugas.

2. Pemilihan personnel – pemilihan secara saintifik dan dilatih, ajar, serta bentuk sebagai pekerja.

3. Kerjasama Pengurusan – pengurus perlu bekerjasama dengan pekerja untuk memastikan semua kerja dijalankan mengikut prinsip saintifik yang dibentuk.

4. Penyeliaan fungsional – pengurus bertindak untuk merancang, menguruskan, membuat keputusan sementara pekerja pula tugas mereka ialah “bekerja”.

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Henri Fayol

Jurutera dan Pengusaha Peranchis Bertugas sebagai Pengarah Urusan sebuah

organisasi yang terbabit dalam perlombongan. Mementingkan prinsip pengurusan daripada

personaliti individu. Fayol adalah orang pertama mengenalpasti

pengurusan sebagai proses penilaian berterusan.

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5 Fungsi Pengurusan Fayol

Peranan utama pengurus: Perancangan Pengurusan Mengarah Mengkoordinasi Mengawal

Terdapat 14 prinsip tambahan yang diperkenalkan Fayol

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14 Prinsip Fayol:

1. Pembahagian Tugas — memperbaikki efisiensi dengan mengurangkan pembaziran, meningkatkan output, dan memudahkan latihan tugas.

2. Kuasa dan Tanggungjawab —kuasa: hak untuk memberi arahan dan kuasa terhadap mendapatkan ketaatan – Tanggungjawab: Tanggungjawab menjalankan tugas.

3. Disiplin — hormat peraturan organisasi

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4. Keunggulan arahan —pekerja hanya perlu diarah oleh satu ketua sahaja.

5. Keunggulan arah— mengelompokkan tugas yang sama untuk dibawah arahan satu pengurus.

6. Tidak mementingkan faedah individu tetapi penekanan faedah organisasi— tidak boleh beri keutamaan kepada kepentingan individu daripada organisasi

7. Pembayaran kepada kakitangan— bayaran yang adil dan memuaskan kepada semua kakitangan.

8. Pemusatan tugas— Tanggungjawab kepada pengurus – pekerja melaksanakan tugas.

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9. Rantaian skalar (Line of authority)— Arahan dari pengurusan atasan kepada pekerja bawahan.

10. Susunan— Kedudukan yang teratur antara pekerja dan peralatan.

11.Equiti— Layanan pengurus kepada pekerja mesti adil dan saksama.

12. Kestabilan jawatan — pembentukan kestabilan jawatan untuk mengelakkan komitment yang rendah daripada pekerja.

13.Inisiatif— pekerja perlu digalakkan untuk memberi pandangan yang membina.

14. Esprit de Corps — pembentukan semangat kerjasama, kerja dalam kumpulan, dan kesatuan pekerja.

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Luther Halsey Gulick(1892-1992)

Pakar kewangan dan pentadbiran munisipal Bertugas di Institute of Public Administration,

professor of municipal science and administration at Columbia, dan juga komiti dalam pentadbiran Franklin D. Roosevelt.

Mengembangkan prinsip Fayol kepada 7 prinsip:

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1. Perancangan – Menggariskan pencapaian dan kaedah untuk pencapaian tersebut.

2. Penyusunan – membentuk struktur autoriti formal menerusi pembahagian tugas yang dirancang, difahami, dan dikoordinasikan dalam pelan.

3. Penstafan - memilih dan melatih staf dan memastikan environment kerja yang kondusif.

4. Pengarahan – tanggungjawab dlm membuat keputusan, mengkomunikasikan dan mengimplementasikan keputusan serta menjalankan penilaian pekerja bawahan yang adil.

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5. Pengkoordinasian – segala kegiatan dan usaha adalah untuk menyatukan organisasi ke arah mencapai objektif yang sama.

6. Rekod – kejayaan direkodkan untuk memastikan kelemahan dapat diperbaikki.

7. Belanjawan – setiap aktiviti yang hendak dijalankan perlu menyediakan bajet.

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Max Weber(1864-1920)

German sociologist Weber first describes the concept of

bureaucracy – an ideal form of organizational structure

He defines bureaucratic administration as the exercise of control on the basis of knowledge

Weber states, “Power is principally exemplified within organizations by the process of control”

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Weber uses and defines the terms authority and power as:

Power: any relationship within which one person could impose his will, regardless of any resistance from the other.

Authority: existed when there was a belief in the legitimacy of that power.

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Weber classifies organizations according to the legitimacy of their power and uses three basic classifications:

Charismatic Authority: based on the sacred or outstanding characteristic of the individual.

Traditional Authority: essentially a respect for customs.

Rational Legal Authority: based on a code or set of rules.

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Weber recognizes that rational legal authority is used in the most efficient

form of organization because:

A legal code can be established which can claim obedience from members of the organization

The law is a system of abstract rules which are applied to particular cases; and administration looks after the interests of the organization within the limits of that law.

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The manager or the authority additionally follows the impersonal order

Membership is key to law obedience

Obedience is derived not from the person administering the law, but rather to the impersonal order that installed the person’s authority

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Weber outlined his ideal bureaucracy as defined by the following parameters:

A continuous system of authorized jobs maintained by regulations

Specialization: encompasses a defined “sphere of competence,” based on its divisions of labor

A stated chain of command of offices: a consistent organization of supervision based on distinctive levels of authority

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Rules: an all encompassing system of directives which govern behavior: rules may require training to comprehend and manage

Impersonality: no partiality, either for or against, clients, workers, or administrators

Free selection of appointed officials: equal opportunity based on education and professional qualification

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Full-time paid officials: only or major employment; paid on the basis of position

Career officials: promotion based on seniority and merit; designated by supervisors

Private/Public split: separates business and private life

The finances and interests of the two should be kept firmly apart: the resources of the organization are quite distinct from those of the members as private individuals.

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(a) A tendency to a leveling of social classes by allowing a wide range of recruits with technical competence to be taken by any organization

(b) Elite status because of the time required to achieve the necessary technical training

(c) Greater degree of social equality due to the dominance of the spirit of impersonality or objectivity

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Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy

Tenets of Bureaucracy Tenets of Bureaucracy Rules Specified sphere of competence Hierarchy Specialized Training Workers do not own technology No entitlement to “official position” by

incumbent Everything written down Maintenance of “ideal type” - bureaucracy

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Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy

Concerned with describing the ideal Concerned with describing the ideal structure of an organizationstructure of an organization

Cornerstone: existence of written rulesCornerstone: existence of written rules

The rational application of written rules The rational application of written rules ensures the promotion of legitimate ensures the promotion of legitimate authority and the effective and efficient authority and the effective and efficient functioning of the organization.functioning of the organization.

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Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy

Application in the Modern WorkplaceApplication in the Modern Workplace Large organizations guided by Large organizations guided by

countless rules are bureaucraciescountless rules are bureaucracies Linked with inefficient, slow-moving Linked with inefficient, slow-moving

organizationsorganizations Organizations have several Organizations have several

characteristics of bureaucraciescharacteristics of bureaucracies

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Common Criticisms of Classical Organizational Theory

Classical principles of formal organization may lead to a work environment in which:

Employees have minimal power over their jobs and working conditions

Subordination, passivity and dependence are expected work to a short term perspective Employees are lead to mediocrity Working conditions produce to psychological failure as a

result of the belief that they are lower class employees performing menial tasks

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SUMMARY

Classical Theories of Organizations (p. 36)Classical Theories of Organizations (p. 36) Taylor’s Theory of Scientific ManagementTaylor’s Theory of Scientific Management Fayol’s Administrative TheoryFayol’s Administrative Theory Weber’s Theory of BureaucracyWeber’s Theory of Bureaucracy

All 3 theories attempt to enhance management’s ability All 3 theories attempt to enhance management’s ability to predict and control the behavior of their workersto predict and control the behavior of their workers

Considered only the task function of communication Considered only the task function of communication (ignored relational and maintenance functions of (ignored relational and maintenance functions of communication)communication)

Designed to predict and control behavior in Designed to predict and control behavior in organizationsorganizations

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Henri FayolMax Weber

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 39

Kajian-kajian Hawthorne

Kajian oleh Elton Mayo terhadap Motivasi Pekerja dan Produktiviti Kerja

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 40

Definisi Kajian Hawthorne Satu siri kajian mengenalpasti

output pekerja hasil daripada layanan yang baik oleh pengurus.

Mengambil sempena nama kilang Western Electric Company di Hawthorne, Illinois.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 41

“ Kajian Hawthorne dijalankan pada 1927-1933 di Western Electric Hawthorne Works, Chicago, dan Harvard Business School Professor Elton Mayo dari Sekolah Perniagaan Harvard mengenalpasti produktiviti dan persekiataran kerja.”

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 42

Latar belakang kajian Tujuan kajian adalah untuk mengenalpasti kesan daripada keletihan dan perlaksaan tugas yang sama setiap hari terhadap produktiviti dan cara mengawal mereka menerusi pembolehubah rehat, kerja lebih masa, suhu dan kelembapan.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 43

“Mayo ingin mengenalpasti kesan daripada keletihan dan melakukan kerja yang sama terhadap produktiviti dan bagaimana mengawal pembolehubah seperti waktu rehat, jumlah jam bekerja, suhu dan kelembapan.”

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 44

Eksperimen Mayo Enam wanita yang memasang geganti telefon.

Membuat perubahan keadaan kerja yang kerap dengan peretujuan mereka.

Jumlah geganti yang dibuat, suhu dan kelembapan bilik, sejarah peribadi serta sejarah perubatan, tabiat makan dan tidur, perbualan ketika bekerja.

Tiada penyelia untuk pekerja tersebut.

Mereka disuruh untuk bekerja mengikut kehendak mereka dan keselesaan mereka.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 45

Keadaan BiasaPada keadaan biasa,

waktu kerja adalah 48 jam termasuk hari sabtu. Tiada waktu berhenti rehat.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 46

Eksperimen Satu Pekerja diarahkan membuat satu kerja

untuk lapan minggu. Output produktiviti meningkat.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 47

Eksperimen Dua Pekerja diberikan dua waktu rehat, setiap satu selama lima minit iaitu waktu pagi dan petang untuk jangka masa lima minggu.

Output meningkat.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 48

Eksperimen TigaWaktu rehat ditambah kepada

10 minit setiap kali rehat.Output meningkat mendadak.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 49

Eksperimen Empat Pekerja diberkan rehat sejumlah 6 kali dan setiap kali selama lima minit.

Output jatuh sedikit. Pekerja merungut kerana kekerapan

berhenti mengganggu konsentrasi mereka.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 50

Eksperimen Lima Waktu rehat seperti waktu asal diberikan dan pekerja dijamu sup panas.

Output meningkat.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 51

Eksperimen Enam Pekerja dibenarkan pulan jam 4:30 p.m. dan bukan 5:00 p.m.

Output meningkat.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 52

Eksperimen Tujuh Pekerja dibenarkan pulang jam 4:00 p.m. Output di tahap yang sama.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 53

Eksperimen Lapan Semua perubahan ditarik balik dan pekerja kembali kepada keadaan asal.

Output yang tertinggi dicatatkan.

KAJIAN HAWTHORNE Dr. Hasan 54

Rumusan KajianKajian ini membuktikan hubungan antara perseorangan dan antara kumpulan adalah penting dalam menentukan kecekapan dan keberkesanan pekerja berbanding persekitaran kerja.

Motivation and Hygiene Factors

Frederick Herzberg

(1923 – 2000)

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher motivation and job satisfaction, and those outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction. Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work

itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work.

Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context of the work—comfortable work environment, pay, job security.Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction;

satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation or job satisfaction.

Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory) Herzberg:Herzberg:

Job contextJob context is source of dissatisfaction is source of dissatisfaction Problems with Problems with hygiene factorshygiene factors (e.g., pay, (e.g., pay,

working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; lack of problems means lack of dissatisfactionlack of problems means lack of dissatisfaction

Job contentJob content is the source of job satisfaction is the source of job satisfaction Motivator factorsMotivator factors (e.g., achievement, (e.g., achievement,

responsibility) link with job performance; if responsibility) link with job performance; if high, satisfaction high and performance stronghigh, satisfaction high and performance strong

Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory) Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using

different methodsdifferent methods Still does not explain individual differences, Still does not explain individual differences,

professional or cultural differencesprofessional or cultural differences

Motivators and Hygiene Factors

Frederick Herzberg theorized that two entirely separate dimensions contribute to an employee’s behavior at work—hygiene factors and motivators. Hygiene factors are elements such as working

conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal relationships Motivators fulfill high-level needs and include

achievement, recognition, responsibility and opportunity for growth

Motivators and Hygiene Factors

Motivators satisfy subordinates–-the things which encourage them to attend work, comply to group or team goals, and produce.

 They often are linked to performance. Positive recognition by a superior and among peers during a formal meeting is an example of this.

Motivators and Hygiene Factors

Hygiene factors keep subordinates from being dissatisfied. They apply to subordinates regardless of performance.  Timely and thorough completion of and counseling on fitness

evaluations are an example of a hygiene factor.  The act is expected. When it does not happen subordinates

become dissatisfied and may come to believe that superiors are not taking care of them.

Satisfiers (motivators) and dissatisfiers (hygiene factors) lie on completely different scales and must be considered independently.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

KITA versus “true” motivation Short-term movement versus long-term motivation

Job enrichment is an attempt to instill an internal generator in the employee

Studies of Herzberg’s theory have included employees working in a variety of industries and jobs Accountants, engineers, nurses, military officers,

and others

Hygiene Factors

Work environment & target basic needs Range from dissatisfaction to no

dissatisfaction The presence of hygiene cannot lead to

satisfaction or high levels of motivation Perception that hygiene is an entitlement

Hygiene Factors (cont)

Salary Can it ever be enough?

Benefits Health care costs, premium sharing

Company policy & administration Work conditions

Office space, equipment, etc.

Motivator Factors

Motivators Tap needs for psychological growth Job content: The work itself Lead to high levels of employee motivation

and satisfaction

Motivator Factors (cont)

Examples Recognition Responsibility Achievement Growth and learning

Prentice Hall, 2001 Chapter 6 70

Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene Factors(lower order needs)

Hygiene Factors(lower order needs)

Motivator Factors(higher order needs)

Motivator Factors(higher order needs)

• Salary• Company policies• Working conditions• Benefits• Job security

• Salary• Company policies• Working conditions• Benefits• Job security

• Career Advancement

• Personal growth

• Recognition

• Responsibility

• Achievement

• Career Advancement

• Personal growth

• Recognition

• Responsibility

• Achievement

High HighJob Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction0

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene Factor - work condition related to dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain maintenance factor contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied contributes to absence of complaints

Motivation Factor - work condition related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological growth job enrichment leads to superior performance & effort

Motivation–Hygiene Theory of Motivation

Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction

• Company policy & administration

• Supervision• Interpersonal relations• Working conditions• Salary• Status• Security

SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human . (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.

• Achievement• Achievement recognition • Work itself• Responsibility• Advancement• Growth

• Salary?

Motivation factors increase job satisfaction

Motivation-Hygiene Combinations

High M Low M

High H high motivation few complaints

low motivation few complaints

Low H high motivation many complaints

low motivation many complaints

(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)

Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction = how positively or Job satisfaction = how positively or negatively individuals feel about their jobsnegatively individuals feel about their jobs

Observable informally through Observable informally through observation and interpretation of observation and interpretation of behaviour and wordsbehaviour and words

Measured formally in questionnairesMeasured formally in questionnaires E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction QuestionnaireE.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire E.g., Job Descriptive IndexE.g., Job Descriptive Index

Effects of Job Satisfaction

Link to absenteeism Link to absenteeism Satisfied have lower absenteeismSatisfied have lower absenteeism

Link to turnover Link to turnover Dissatisfied more likely to quitDissatisfied more likely to quit

Link to performance complexLink to performance complex Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual

performanceperformance Successful performance does seem to lead to Successful performance does seem to lead to

greater satisfactiongreater satisfaction Proper allocation of rewards can increase both Proper allocation of rewards can increase both

performance and satisfactionperformance and satisfaction

Summary

Hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) are working conditions, pay, policies, interpersonal relationships

Motivators (satisfiers) fulfill high-level needs and include recognition, responsibility and opportunity for growth

Theory X/Y

Douglas MacGregor, 1960 Interaction between supervisors and

subordinates Organization’s management approach is

determined by supervisors’ attitudes and belief about subordinates

Beginning of human relations movement

Theory X

Role of Management Management

responsible for organizing elements of productive enterprise

People need to be controlled and directed

People would be passive otherwise

Human Nature man works as little as

possible lacks ambition, dislikes

responsibility, prefers to be led

inherently self-centered

naturally resistant to change

gullible, not very bright

Theory Y

Role of Management Management

responsible for organizing elements of productive enterprise

Task of management is to arrange organizational conditions so that people can achieve their own goals best by directing their own efforts toward organizational objectives

Human Nature People are not

naturally passive, they have become so as a result of experience in organizations

Motivation and capacity for assuming responsibility is inherent in people

Prentice Hall, 2001 80

Theory XTheory XManagers See Workers As…Managers See Workers As…

Disliking WorkDisliking Work

Avoiding ResponsibilityAvoiding Responsibility

Having Little AmbitionHaving Little Ambition

Theory YTheory Y Managers See Workers As…Managers See Workers As…

Enjoying WorkEnjoying Work

Accepting ResponsibilityAccepting Responsibility

Self-DirectedSelf-Directed

Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)

Theory X

Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform.

Theory Y

Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X Management view that assumes workers generally

dislike work and must be forced to do their jobs Theory Y

Management view that assumes workers like to work and under proper conditions, employees will seek responsibility to satisfy social, esteem, and self-actualization needs

Theory Z

A management philosophy that stresses employee participation in all aspects of company decision making